Matt Finer, Author at MAAP

Protected: MAAP #242 Illegal gold mining in Yanomami Indigenous Territory (northern Brazilian Amazon)

Posted on May 13, 2026May 13, 2026 by Matt Finer

MAAP #241: Rapid Expansion of Illegal Gold Mining in Tambopata National Reserve (Southern Peruvian Amazon)

Posted on May 10, 2026May 8, 2026 by Matt Finer

Image 1. Recent expansion of illegal gold mining in Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Gold mining has been a notorious driver of deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon for several decades. This mining-related deforestation reached crisis levels in the mid-2010s, particularly affecting Tambopata National Reserve and its buffer zone (see MAAP #96 from January 2019). This situation led to the major government operation known as “Operation Mercury” in February 2019, and a subsequent initiative known as the “Restoration Plan” in 2021.

After a period of reduced mining activity due to Operation Mercury and the Restoration Plan, illegal gold mining has resumed an alarming expansion within Tambopata National Reserve, primarily during the second half of 2025 and early 2026 (see Graph 1 below).

During this recent period (2025–26), we find that a total area of 500 hectares was deforested due to illegal mining in the northern part of the Reserve along the Malinowski River, which forms part of its northern boundary (see Base Map below).

Analyzing very high-resolution satellite imagery (Planet’s SkySat, 0.5m), we detected a total of 183 mining structures (such as heavy equipment and excavators) and 67 mining camps across five mining zones within the northern part of Tambopata National Reserve, as of February 2026.

Based on this finding, we estimate that around 1,000 people are currently involved in illegal mining activities in the Reserve, using a conversion factor derived from the machinery and camps detected within the mining zones (ACCA, 2022).

In response to this situation, the Peruvian government has initiated several actions in early 2026 (January – March) to address the expanding invasion of illegal mining within Tambopata National Reserve. Through coordination between police and military institutions, these interventions have resulted in the seizure and destruction of machinery, equipment, and encampments used in illegal mining activities within the Reserve (Joint Command of the Armed Forces, 2026).

Below, we present:

Annual mining deforestation trends in Tambopata National Reserve (2016–2025);
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Four case studies featuring satellite imagery to illustrate the most recent mining expansion within the Reserve.
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5 pillars of public policy regarding illegal mining in Tambopata National Reserve, including enforcement operations and state limitations; legislative setbacks and threats; and the 2026 political election.

Annual Mining Deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve

Graph 1 shows annual mining deforestation within Tambopata National Reserve for the period 2016–2025. The main ecosystems affected by this mining activity were the Alluvial Floodplain Forest and Non-Floodplain Terrace Forest.

Graph 1. Mining Deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACA, ACCA, BCRP, CINCIA, MapBiomas Perú.

During this period, three key events stand out:

First, Operation Mercury—a multisectoral intervention against illegal mining in critical zones of the Madre de Dios region, carried out in early 2019—resulted in a major reduction that same year compared to 2016 and 2017, when higher levels of mining expansion were recorded. During 2017 and 2018, a series of operations and interdictions were launched in the region that helped combat the advance of illegal mining (AIDER, 2021). Coupled with these actions, the success of Operation Mercury led to a substantial reduction in mining expansion within the Tambopata National Reserve and its buffer zone (MAAP #104, MAAP #121).

Second, the “Restoration Plan“—a series of military interventions conducted in 2021 in critical illegal mining zones within the southern Peruvian Amazon—also resulted in a major decrease in mining deforestation that same year, compared to the previous year. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, difficulties arose regarding the execution of operations and patrols within Tambopata National Reserve and its buffer zone, leading to a reduction in police and military presence in key sectors (AIDER, 2021; DAR, 2023; Vadillo, 2022). Consequently, instances of illegal miners re-entering Tambopata were recorded (Romo, 2020). In response, the renewed military operations successfully combated the expansion of illegal mining activity in the Madre de Dios region, including Tambopata.

Thirdly, during 2025-early 2026, we recorded an alarming gold mining deforestation expansion (500 hectares), surpassing the figures registered during the critical years of 2016 and 2017 that led up to Operation Mercury. This sudden increase was likely driven by the exponential rise in the international price of gold (see red line in Graph 1). Thus, it is likely that the sustained rise in gold prices has influenced the expansion of illegal mining in recent years by boosting the expected profitability derived from the trade of extracted ore.

Base Map & Case Studies

The Base Map displays the recent expansion of 500 hectares deforested by illegal mining within Tambopata National Reserve during the second half of 2025 (431 hectares) and early 2026 (69 hectares through February). Mining activity is concentrated in the northwestern part of the Reserve, in areas adjacent to the Malinowski River. Furthermore, it has been identified that this illegal activity is taking place in the vicinity of several of the Reserve’s surveillance posts. Insets A–D indicate the location of the four case studies.

Base Map. Illegal Gold Mining Activity in the Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACA, ACCA, CINCIA, MapBiomas Perú.

Case Study A. Sector Isla Córdoba

In this area, located in the northwest corner of Tambopata National Reserve (see Box A in the Base Map), we recorded 106 hectares of mining deforestation between January 2025 and January 2026 (Figure A1). Note that this mining zone is situated near the Reserve’s Otorongo surveillance and control post (see Base Map).

Figure A1. Mining deforestation in the Isla Córdoba sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure A2 shows that a large portion of this deforestation (80%) occurred between July and December 2025 (indicated in orange) and continued to expand until early 2026 (red). This sector has recorded mining activity in previous years (blue), primarily between 2017 and 2018. As part of the actions undertaken during Operation Mercury in 2019, military operations were carried out to intervene in the mining zones located within this sector, achieving a reduction in the expansion of illegal mining during this period (Salazar, 2024).

Figure A2. Mining deforestation in the Isla Córdoba sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

The presence of gold mining infrastructure has expanded into the various pools located in this sector, with a total of 53 dredges and 20 mining camps recorded in February 2026 (Figure A3).

Figure A3. Mining infrastructure in the Isla Córdoba sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Case Study B. Sector A4

In this area, also located in the northwest corner of Tambopata National Reserve (see Box B on the Base Map), we recorded 101 hectares of mining deforestation between February 2025 and February 2026 (Figure B1).

Figure B1. Mining deforestation in Sector A4 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure B2 shows that, in early 2025, we detected the expansion of the first mining zones in this sector into the interior of Tambopata National Reserve (indicated yellow). Subsequently, between July and December 2025, an increase of 83 hectares of mining activity was recorded (orange), representing 82% of the total recorded. This increase in mining activity continued until early 2026 (red), expanding further into the interior of the Reserve.

Figure B2. Data: ACCA, Planet

In this sector, we recorded 68 mining structures located within pits, as well as the presence of 33 mining camps, in February 2026 (Figure B3). The number of structures identified in this zone was higher compared to the other sectors analyzed.

Figure B3. Mining infrastructure in Sector A4 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Caso Study C. Sector A7

In this area, located in the northern part of Tambopata National Reserve (see Box C on the Base Map), we recorded 25 hectares of mining deforestation between February 2025 and February 2026 along the Malinowski River (Figure C1). This new mining zone is situated near the Azul surveillance and control post (see Base Map).

Figure C1. Mining deforestation in Sector A7 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure C2 shows that mining began in the second half of 2025 (indicated in orange), marked by the presence of a mining pit adjacent to the Malinowski River, and subsequently expanded over the following months. In 2026 (red), we recorded an increase of 17 hectares, representing 68% of total deforestation. No mining infrastructure was recorded in this sector due to the lack of available very high-resolution satellite imagery for 2026.

Figure C2. Mining deforestation in Sector A7 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Case Study D. Sector Isla Correntada

In this area, located in the northeast of Tambopata National Reserve (see inset D on the Base Map), we recorded 111 hectares of mining deforestation between January 2025 and January 2026 (Figure D1). This mining zone is situated near the Yarinal surveillance and control post (see Base Map).

Figure D1. Mining deforestation in the Isla Correntada sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure D2 shows that mining began expanding slightly during the January–June 2025 period (indicated in yellow). Subsequently, an advancement of mining activity was detected starting in July 2025. The expansion of mining was greatest during the July–December 2025 period, during which a total of 85 hectares of deforestation were recorded (orange), representing 76% of the total. As of 2026, mining continues to expand in various zones within the Isla Correntada sector (red).

Figure D2. Mining deforestation in the Isla Correntada sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

A total of 11 mining structures have been identified within various mining pits, and three mining camps have also been located in this sector. Figure D3 depicts various mining structures engaged in gold extraction near the Malinowski River, as well as the presence of a mining camp.

Figure D3. Mining infrastructure in the Isla Correntada sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Public Policies Addressing Illegal Mining in the Tambopata National Reserve

The satellite imagery analysis presented in this report documents the advancement of illegal mining deforestation within Tambopata National Reserve during the 2025–2026 period. To contextualize these findings, this section examines the Peruvian State’s public policy framework during the same period, identifying the institutional, regulatory, and political factors that directly or indirectly influence the dynamics observed within the reserve.

The analysis is organized around five key themes:

The State’s Response: Operations and Interdiction;
Structural Limitations of the State Response;
Legislative Setbacks Favoring Illegal Mining;
Legislative Threats to Protected Natural Areas;
2026 Political and Electoral Context.

Taken together, the regulatory and institutional landscape of the 2025–2026 period reflects a structural tension between the control measures deployed by the Executive Branch and a regressive legislative trend that has weakened mechanisms for prevention, oversight, and enforcement. This contradiction constitutes one of the primary explanatory factors behind the expansion of illegal mining documented in the analyzed satellite imagery. Each of these key areas is discussed in detail below.

1. State Response: Operations and Interdiction

In response to the encroachment of illegal mining within Tambopata National Reserve, the Peruvian State implemented a series of operational and regulatory control measures during the 2025–2026 period. The most persistent exceptional measure in the region is the state of emergency in Madre de Dios, in effect uninterruptedly since April 7, 2023, when it was declared by Supreme Decree No. 046-2023-PCM. This declaration encompasses the districts of Tambopata, Inambari, Las Piedras, and Laberinto—all located within the Tambopata province—as well as the districts of Madre de Dios and Huepetuhe in the Manu province. The measure mandated that the Peruvian National Police (PNP) assume control of internal order, supported by the Armed Forces, with the specific aim of combating illegal mining, illegal logging, and illicit drug trafficking within the region.

Building upon this declaration, land- and river-based interdiction operations were carried out within the Reserve. The National Service of Natural Protected Areas (SERNANP)—in coordination with the National Police of Peru (PNP), the General Directorate of Captaincies and Coast Guards of Peru (DICAPI), and the Specialized Environmental Prosecutor’s Office (FEMA)—activated, through the Second Amazon Protection Brigade, a dynamic control strategy featuring continuous patrols at critical points within the reserve, with particular emphasis on the Otorongo, Azul, Yarinal, and Malinowski sectors—the latter serving as a key hub for both riverine and land-based control along the reserve’s northern boundary.

The scope of these interventions, carried out between January and March 2026, was considerable in terms of the equipment seized or destroyed by authorities, including mining rafts, engines, motors, pumps, generators, fuel, and motorcycles. In addition, 340 mining camps were dismantled. Nevertheless, satellite monitoring indicates that these actions failed to reverse the expansion of mining activity in the targeted sectors (see Figure A2).

Parallel to these actions in the field, the Executive sought to strengthen the legal framework for prosecuting crime. On January 20, 2026, it promulgated Legislative Decree No. 1695, which amends the Penal Code to stiffen penalties against illegal mining, establishing prison sentences of five to eight years for those who engage in mining activities without authorization or outside the formalization process, and six to nine years for those who traffic in chemical inputs, machinery, or minerals of illicit origin (Presidency of the Republic of Peru, 2026).

Furthermore, the regulation expressly incorporates illegal mining into the scope of the Law Against Organized Crime (Law No. 30077), thereby enabling the use of special investigative tools for the prosecution of these networks. Additionally, on February 5, 2026, a new extension of the state of emergency was ordered for an additional 60 days by means of Supreme Decree No. 017-2026-PCM, the validity of which was extended until April 6, 2026. However, the effectiveness of these measures—both operational and regulatory—encountered concrete limitations, which are analyzed in the following section.

2. Structural Limitations of the State Response

Despite the operational deployment described in the previous section, the State’s response faced limitations that reduced its effectiveness and that explain, in part, the continued advance of illegal mining documented in satellite imagery. The most critical limitation was budgetary in nature: the special units of the Peruvian Navy, which maintained a permanent presence at control and surveillance posts along the Malinowski River (the natural boundary between the Reserve and its buffer zone), were withdrawn during 2025 due to a lack of funding. This interrupted interdiction operations in one of the most active entry corridors for illegal mining into the interior of the reserve—a fact consistent with the data presented in the Base Map (Chumpitaz, 2025).

This absence of a continuous field presence resulted in a response capacity that was reactive rather than preventive. Although the High Commissioner for the Fight Against Illegal Mining, Rodolfo García Esquerre, noted that the budget allocated to this struggle was increased for 2026, specialists warned that such an increase would prove insufficient as long as current regulations continue to foster conditions of impunity for illegal operators (Chumpitaz, 2025). Along similar lines, the Illegal Mining Observatory (OMI) pointed out that judges, prosecutors, and government attorneys face budgetary constraints and a shortage of specialized personnel, thereby jeopardizing the effective enforcement of Legislative Decree No. 1695, approved in January 2026 (Pizarro, 2026).

The result of these limitations is a structural gap between the State’s operational response and the scale of the problem. The fact that the Madre de Dios region has been under a continuous state of emergency since April 2023—with consecutive extensions every 60 days—attests to the chronic nature of the phenomenon and the inadequacy of the measures adopted to reverse it in a sustained manner: interdiction operations succeed in dismantling specific equipment and camps, but they fail to prevent the reconstitution of criminal networks or the steady advance of the mining frontier deeper into the reserve. This gap cannot be explained solely by budgetary constraints or limitations in institutional capacity, but also by a series of legislative setbacks that—as analyzed in the following section—have worked at cross-purposes with the control efforts deployed in the field.

3. Legislative Setbacks Favoring Illegal Mining

As noted in the previous section, the limitations of the state response cannot be explained solely by operational or budgetary constraints, but also by a series of legislative amendments approved during the 2025–2026 period that have weakened the mechanisms for preventing, overseeing, and sanctioning illegal mining. These regulations—approved concurrently with interdiction operations—create a contradictory regulatory framework that reduces the effectiveness of control actions deployed in the field.

The most significant setback was the fifth extension of the Mining Formalization Registry (REINFO), approved by the Congressional Plenary in December 2025 and enacted by the Executive Branch via Law No. 32537 on December 26 of the same year. Through this measure, the deadline for the mining formalization process was extended until the end of 2026, with the possibility of an earlier closure should the MAPE Law and its implementing regulations enter into force prior to that date. It is worth noting that this marks the fifth consecutive extension of a mechanism originally conceived as transitional; previous extensions occurred in 2019, 2024, June 2025, and December 2025 (Zevallos Morón, 2026). Isabel Calle (2025) pointed out that, with this extension, the country remains trapped in a system that has failed to drive effective formalization and has, on the contrary, created incentives for non-compliance with the law, thereby exacerbating environmental degradation in regions such as Madre de Dios.

Compounding this setback are additional amendments that have weakened the legal tools available for combating illegal mining. Congress repealed the First Final Complementary Provision of Legislative Decree No. 1607, which had amended Law No. 30077 on Organized Crime, thereby curtailing the National Police’s (PNP) authority to take action regarding the illegal possession of explosives—particularly in cases involving miners suspended from the REINFO registry. This measure drew harsh criticism from the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic, which warned that its implementation could facilitate illicit activities linked to informal mining (Tuesta, 2024).

Taken together, these legislative setbacks create a scenario in which interdiction operations and the stricter penalties introduced by Legislative Decree No. 1695 operate within a regulatory framework that simultaneously broadens the scope of tolerance toward informal mining. Furthermore, this landscape is compounded by legislative initiatives that pose a direct threat to the region’s Natural Protected Areas, as discussed in the following section.

4. Legislative Threats to Protected Natural Areas

Added to the landscape of legislative setbacks described in the previous section are parliamentary initiatives during this same period that pose a direct threat to the legal protection framework for Protected Areas in the Madre de Dios region, including ecosystems adjacent to Tambopata National Reserve. Unlike the regulations analyzed previously, these initiatives do not merely weaken existing oversight mechanisms regarding illegal mining; rather, they aim to alter the legal protection status of spaces that currently constitute the final institutional barrier against the expansion of extractive activities in the region.

The first of these initiatives is Bill No. 1822/2024-CR, introduced on July 2, 2025, by Congressman Jorge Luis Flores Ancachi (Acción Popular). The proposal seeks to amend nine articles of the Protected Natural Areas Law (Law No. 26834), thereby opening the door to hydrocarbon extraction activities in spaces that currently enjoy the highest level of legal protection—such as national parks, as well as national and historical sanctuaries—and granting the Ministry of Energy and Mines greater authority over the management of these areas. Vanessa Cueto warned that, should this amendment be approved, protected areas would ultimately become mere “paper parks,” left exposed to the impacts of high-intensity extractive activities. Among the areas directly affected are Bahuaja Sonene and Manu National Parks, both of which border the Tambopata National Reserve (Sierra Praeli, 2023). Along similar lines, on March 20, 2026, Congressman Eduardo Salhuana introduced Bill No. 14288/2025-CR, which would declare the development of the Madre de Dios gas basin to be a matter of national interest and strategic priority. The bill would—on an exceptional basis—authorize gas exploration and exploitation activities within “indirect-use” Protected Natural Areas (ANPs), including the Manu and Bahuaja Sonene National Parks, as well as the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve. Critics have argued that the approval of this bill would constitute a regulatory regression of the highest order, given that both the Manu National Park and the Bahuaja Sonene National Park are indirect-use ANPs which, under current legislation, expressly prohibit the extraction of natural resources within their boundaries (SPDA, 2026).

During the same period, Bill No. 3377—originally introduced in October 2022 by the same congressman—was reactivated. This bill proposes to authorize the granting of mining concessions over areas that have reverted to State control due to non-compliance with obligations, inactivity, or other grounds for termination or annulment. If approved, this proposal would lift the current restrictions on the granting of new mining concessions in Madre de Dios (Salazar Vega, 2026).

These bills—although still in the legislative debate stage at the time this report was finalized—reflect a trend toward subordinating the region’s environmental protection to extractive interests. This is occurring within a context where pressure on Tambopata National Reserve has already reached critical levels, according to the satellite data analyzed. This scenario is further exacerbated by political and social factors, which are examined in the following section.

5. Violence Against Environmental Defenders and the 2026 Political-Electoral Context

The scenario of legislative pressure and institutional weakness described in the preceding sections unfolds within a social and political context that further exacerbates the situation of Tambopata National Reserve. Two factors stand out in this regard: the violence perpetrated against those who defend the territory, and the absence of a robust environmental agenda within the framework of the 2026 national electoral process.

As an example regarding violence against environmental defenders, on July 26, 2025, Hipólito Quispe Huamán—an environmental defender for Tambopata National Reserve—was murdered while traveling toward his home along the Interoceanic Highway in Madre de Dios. His death adds to the more than 30 killings of environmental defenders and Indigenous leaders recorded in Peru since 2020, solidifying a pattern of violence that functions as a deterrent against those who monitor and denounce illegal activities within the reserve (Sierra Praeli, 2025).

Compounding this factor is the political-electoral context of 2026. The national electoral process—which entails the renewal of both the Executive and Legislative branches—is unfolding against a backdrop of political instability and the progressive weakening of environmental policies. Although Peru’s natural capital underpins approximately 20% of the GDP and 65% of national agriculture, the environment does not occupy a central place in the candidates’ proposals, according to experts consulted by various organizations (Guardia Brown, 2026). This absence of structural political will implies that the substantive decisions necessary to halt the advance of illegal mining in the Reserve—such as the approval of an effective MAPE Law, the definitive closure of the REINFO, or the budgetary strengthening of SERNANP—are unlikely to be addressed in the short term, thereby prolonging the window of vulnerability documented in this report.

6. Public Policy Conclusion

An analysis of the Peruvian State’s public policy framework during the 2025–2026 period reveals a scenario of profound institutional contradiction. On one hand, the Executive branch implemented concrete response measures to address the mining crisis in Tambopata National Reserve, including declaring a state of emergency in the province of Tambopata, conducting land- and river-based interdiction operations, and strengthening the penal framework through Legislative Decree No. 1695. On the other hand, these actions operate upon a normative and institutional foundation that has simultaneously been undermined by regressive legislative decisions, structural budgetary constraints, parliamentary initiatives threatening the legal status of the region’s natural Protected Areas, and a climate of violence against environmental defenders that diminishes territorial surveillance capacity.

This contradiction is not merely circumstantial but structural: it reflects the absence of a comprehensive and sustained policy for the protection of the Reserve—one that coherently integrates the available operational, normative, budgetary, and institutional instruments. One indication of this is that, given the magnitude of the problem, SERNANP is promoting the establishment of a unified command to combat illegal mining, recognizing that the PNP’s capacity for territorial control has been overwhelmed by the scale of the phenomenon and that a more comprehensive intervention by the Armed Forces is required.

In this regard, the findings from the satellite analysis presented in this report cannot be interpreted solely as the result of the activities of criminal networks, but also as the territorial manifestation of an environmental governance framework that, during the period under review, failed to halt the encroachment of illegal mining or reverse the deforestation trend in one of the country’s most critical protected natural areas. The contrast with the results of Operation Mercury in 2019 and Plan Restoration in 2021—both associated with measurable reductions in deforestation documented in Graph 1—suggests that the effectiveness of the State does not depend on the absence of tools, but rather on the coordination, coherence, and sustainability with which these are deployed.

Methodology

The identification of gold mining deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve utilized historical mining deforestation data in the Madre de Dios region, generated by the Center for Amazonian Scientific Innovation (CINCIA) for the years 1984–2019, by MapBiomas Perú for 2020, and by Amazon Conservation (ACA) for the period from January 2021 to March 2024.

Next, the LandTrendR algorithm was used to identify forest loss in monthly Planet NICFI mosaics for the period April 2024 – July 2025. For the period August 2025 – February 2026, mining deforestation (identified using the monthly Planet NICFI mosaics at 4.7 m spatial resolution) was monitored to record the expansion of mining-related deforestation within the Reserve.

The identification of mining infrastructure and camps was based on the visual interpretation of very-high-resolution satellite imagery (Skysat from Planet) obtained (tasked) for the mining zones identified within Tambopata National Reserve.

References

Alza, R. (27 de febrero de 2026). Estado intensifica lucha contra minería ilegal en Tambopata. Rumbo Minero. https://www.rumbominero.com/actualidad/estado-intensifica-lucha-contra-mineria-ilegal-en-tambopata/

Andina. (4 de febrero de 2026). Normas Legales: prorrogan estado de emergencia en diversos distritos de Madre de Dios. Andina. https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-normas-legales-prorrogan-estado-emergencia-diversos-distritos-madre-dios-1061822.aspx

Asociación para la Investigación y Desarrollo Integral – AIDER. (2021). Minería ilegal en la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Nacional Tambopata. Cartilla N°17. https://aider.com.pe/publicacionesca/cartillas/Cartilla_Mineria_2021_VF_opt.pdf

Calle, I. (28 de noviembre de 2025). El Reinfo: una excepción que se volvió norma. SPDA. https://spda.org.pe/noticia/el-reinfo-una-excepcion-que-se-volvio-norma/

Chumpitaz, O. (31 de diciembre de 2025). Mafias mantienen en vilo al Parque Nacional del Manu y a la Reserva Nacional de Tambopata. La República. https://larepublica.pe/politica/2025/12/31/mafias-mantienen-en-vilo-al-parque-nacional-del-manu-y-a-la-reserva-nacional-de-tambopata-mineria-ilegal-hnews-775496

Conservación Amazónica (ACCA), Proyecto Prevenir – USAID. (2022). Estimación de la población minera informal e ilegal en el departamento de Madre de Dios, a partir del uso de imágenes satelitales sub métricas. https://repositorio.profonanpe.org.pe/handle/20.500.14150/2744

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Pizarro, O. (4 de febrero de 2026). Minería ilegal en Perú: nuevo decreto endurece penas, pero no ataca las causas de fondo. Infobae. https://www.infobae.com/peru/2026/02/04/mineria-ilegal-en-peru-nuevo-decreto-endurece-penas-pero-no-ataca-las-causas-de-fondo/

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Salazar, E. (2024). La violencia replegó al Estado peruano y presiona la Reserva Nacional Tambopata en Perú. Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/2024/07/violencia-replego-al-estado-peruano-presiona-reserva-nacional-tambopata-peru/

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Zevallos Morón, J. (26 de diciembre de 2025). Gobierno promulgó ley que amplía la vigencia del Reinfo hasta diciembre de 2026. RPP. https://rpp.pe/politica/gobierno/gobierno-promulgo-ley-que-amplia-la-vigencia-del-reinfo-hasta-diciembre-de-2026-noticia-1669269

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the Sub-directorate of Strategic Information and Research on Protected Natural Areas and the Sub-directorate of Supervision, Surveillance, and Control of the National Service of Protected Natural Areas by the State (SERNANP) for their contributions and comments on this report.

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon, through a strategic collaboration between Amazon Conservation and Conservación Amazónica – Peru (ACCA), with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation

Pacsi R, Novoa S, La Torre S, Balbuena H, Finer M, Santana A, Castillo H. (2026). Rapid Expansion of Illegal Gold Mining in Tambopata National Reserve (Southern Peruvian Amazon). MAAP:241.

MAAP #240: Expansion of illegal gold mining in the Xingu Basin of the Brazilian Amazon (part 2. Protected Areas)

Posted on May 5, 2026May 5, 2026 by Matt Finer

Base Map. Mining sites in the Xingu Socio-environmental Diversity Corridor. Data: ACA/MAAP, ISA.

We present the second of a two-part series on illegal gold mining deforestation in the Xingu River Basin, located in the eastern Brazilian Amazon (states of Pará and Mato Grosso). The current report examines mining in protected areas of the Xingu, while Part 1 focused on Indigenous territories (see MAAP #239)

The Xingu Basin is the site of the largest historical concentration of gold mining deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon (see MAAP #235). At the heart of this basin is the Xingu Socio-environmental Diversity Corridor, which is one of the largest continuous blocks (over 26 million hectares) of designated forests on the planet, connecting 24 Indigenous territories and 9 protected areas (see Base Map). Despite the official land designations, the area remains threatened, especially by the expansion of illegal gold mining driven by record high gold prices.

To address this challenge, the Xingu+ Network (Rede Xingu+) was created, a political alliance formed by a coalition of organizations representing the area. This network monitors deforestation and other pressures in the Xingu Corridor monthly, using the radar-based SiRAD X system.

In 2025, the Xingu+ Network partnered with Amazon Conservation, facilitating access to high-resolution optical images (from Planet), allowing for validation of alerts and identification of drivers. This collaboration also incorporates the online public dashboard Amazon Mining Watch.

Both systems, SiRAD X and Amazon Mining Watch, have detected a major expansion of gold mining deforestation since 2018 in the Corridor, including continued illegal activity during 2025. Throughout the report, we present data for both systems, noting their slight differences due to varying methodologies (Note 1), but the overall patterns of both datasets are consistent.

Between 2018 and 2024, the Sirad X monitoring system recorded the loss of around 11,500 hectares of forest within the Indigenous territories and protected areas of the Xingu Corridor (Amazon Mining Watch estimates around 16,000 ha), plus 400 hectares in 2025 (January – September), similar to the estimate of Amazon Mining Watch.

Both monitoring systems have detected recent mining deforestation in 6 protected areas in the Xingu Corridor (Note 2), in addition to the 5 Indigenous territories reported in part 1.

In Part 1, we detailed the recent gold mining deforestation in three of these Indigenous territories (Kuruaya, Baú, and Kayapó).

Here, in part 2, we focus on the recent gold mining deforestation in three of these protected areas (Altamira National Forest, Terra do Meio Ecological Station, and Nascentes da Serra do Cachimbo Biological Reserve) in the Xingu Corridor, including the presentation of a series of high-resolution images.

The Base Map indicates the focal areas of this series, with Points A-C covered in the first report (Indigenous territories), and Points D-F in the current second report (protected areas).

Mining in Protected Areas

Altamira National Forest

The Altamira National Forest (located in Pará state) is experiencing expanding illegal mining in three locations with notable increases in 2025. In just the first eight months of 2025, the area affected by illegal mining in the Altamira National Forest has already exceeded the total environmental damage recorded for the entire year of 2024, highlighting the urgent need for enforcement operations in the area.

Mining began in its northwestern and western sections between 2016 and 2018 and expanded 832 hectares by September 2025. Figure D1 shows recent mining deforestation in the western section, between October 2024 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel). Although there are mining exploration applications for these sections, mining is not permitted in the area’s Management Plan or in its creation decree (Decree No. 2483, 1998). See Note 3 for comparison with AMW.

Figure D1 Data: Planet, NICFI

The mining in the southeastern section began in 2024 and expanded to a cumulative total of 36 hectares by October 2025, according to the Xingu+ Network monitoring. Gold mining in the southeastern section accounted for 45.7% of the area deforested by mining operations in 2025 within the National Forest, with the peak of its expansion occurring in June. Figure D2 shows recent mining deforestation in this section, between September 2024 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel).

Figure D2 Data: Planet, NICFI

Terra do Meio Ecological Station

The Terra do Meio Ecological Station has emerged as a new mining front. First identified in September 2024, the mining rapidly expanded to a cumulative total of 30 hectares by the end of 2025, according to the Xingu+ Network monitoring (see Note 4 for comparison with AMW). Figure E shows this expansion between December 2024 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel).

Although the Terra do Meio Ecological Station faces other illegal activities, such as deforestation, the presence of illegal mining operations within its boundaries is particularly concerning. This case not only demonstrates how far the offenders have encroached on a strictly protected area, but also highlights their high level of operational capacities. This combination increases the risk that the activity will spread, causing environmental degradation in other parts of the protected area.

Figure E. Data: Planet, NICFI

Cachimbo Mountain Headwaters Biological Reserve

The Cachimbo Mountain Headwaters Biological Reserve is strategically located along the BR-163 highway in Pará. It is a strictly protected conservation area established by Decree No. – May 20, 2005, and is located between the municipalities of Altamira and Novo Progresso, in the Tapajós-Xingu interfluve, and adjacent to the Menkragnoti and Panará Indigenous Lands on its eastern boundary.

Illegal mining in the Biological Reserve began to expand, primarily starting in January 2025. At that time, the mining site—which had previously covered an area of two hectares—was the subject of a complaint filed in Official Letter No. 01/2025 by Rede Xingu+. In June, illegal mining in the Biological Reserve was reported again via Official Letter No. 15/2025, following an expansion of 18 ha, and in July, via Official Letter No. 18/2025, following a further expansion of 6.82 ha, totaling 26.82 ha.

Two mining sites are located in the northeastern region of the Rebio, opened in November 2024 and March 2025, and another site in the eastern region, opened in June 2025. It is worth noting that the site in the eastern region was also the subject of a complaint in Official Letter No. 18/2025, as it is located on and causing pollution in a tributary of the Pitxatxá River, a river that borders the Menkragnoti Indigenous Territory and where six indigenous villages of the Kayapó people are located.

Illegal mining began in December 2024, expanding to a cumulative total of 19 hectares as of September 2025 across several locations in the protected area, according to the Xingu+ Network monitoring (see Note 5 for comparison with AMW).

Even after enforcement operations, gold mining activity continues to expand within the Cachimbo Mountain Headwaters Biological Reserve. Figures 1 and 2 show the rapid mining-deforestation expansion up to November 2025, and Figure 3 shows the construction of a landing strip between July and August, providing access to the gold mines in the eastern region.

Figure F1 shows recent mining deforestation in the northeast part of the Biological Reserve, between December 2024 (left panel) and November 2025 (right panel).

Figure F1 Data: Planet, NICFI

Figure F2 shows recent mining deforestation in the eastern part of the Biological Reserve, between June 2025 (left panel) and November 2025 (right panel).

Figure F2 Data: Planet, NICFI

Figure F3 shows a new landing strip (opened in August 2025) in the eastern part of the Biological Reserve, between June 2025 (left panel) and November 2025 (right panel).

Figure F3 Data: Planet, NICFI

Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the information presented above (and the previous MAAP #239), it is clear that illegal mining in the Xingu basin is not an isolated activity. It has spread to both Indigenous territories and protected areas, with illegal activity advancing into new territories, indicating the existence of a support network that provides the operational capacity and infrastructure necessary for the activity. Illegal mining poses a direct threat to protected areas by both deforestation and the contamination of rivers through the use of mercury, which affect sensitive ecosystems and the populations that depend on these resources.

Below, we propose a number of recommendations to Brazilian authorities with regards to: (i) the design of enforcement actions; (ii) monitoring and restoration (iii) traceability of gold supply chains.

(i) The design of enforcement actions;

Isolated enforcement actions have not been sufficient to guarantee the long-term protection of Protected Areas. Therefore, it is essential to establish a strategy coordinated with other agencies to dismantle the logistical structure that operates and fuels illegal mining. Alongside this, the structuring of preventive measures is fundamental.

Establish permanent advanced bases (operated by government agencies such as ICMBio) in the most critical protected aeass, ensuring a constant presence to break the cycle of miners returning after eviction operations.
Focus on disabling airstrips and seizing heavy machinery (hydraulic excavators) within protected areas, coordinating with National Civil Aviation agency (ANAC) and National Oil, Petroleum and Biofuel Agency (ANP) to block clandestine airfields and fuel stations in the areas surrounding protected lands.
Strengthen oversight in the surroundings of protected areas to prevent legalized mining in nearby areas from serving as a front for illegal extraction within the boundaries of protected areas. This process would include the National Mining Agency (ANM), with oversight from other agencies.

(ii) Monitoring and restoration

Strengthening surveillance and environmental recovery is essential to discourage the return of illegal miners.

Support management councils and associations of riverine and traditional populations in implementing surveillance protocols, recognizing the role of these communities in maintaining the integrity of sustainable-use protected areas.
Implement Degraded Area Recovery Plans (PRADs) focused on the revegetation of riparian forests and the containment of siltation caused by mining sediments.In federal areas, it would be ICMBio; in state conservation units, the Institute for Forest and Biodiversity Development of the State of Pará (IDEFLOR-Bio).

(iii) Traceability of gold supply chains.

Implement a data-cross-referencing system that automatically blocks the issuance of Electronic Fiscal Invoices (NF-e) for minerals whose declared origin overlaps with Protected Area polygons. Improve legislation regarding documentation of sourcing area in traceability mechanisms, making it more difficult to “launder” minerals illegally extracted from Protected Areas.

Notes

1. Methodology of monitoring systems

For Sirad X monitoring, radar images from the Sentinel-1 satellite are used, which are processed by a series of algorithms on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, along with optical images from the Landsat-9 satellite (OLI-2 sensor) and Sentinel-2 satellite (MSI sensor). A team of analysts examines the monitored area, visually searching for anomalies in the produced images. Each deforestation polygon is evaluated based on its proximity to other areas of degradation and the history of the region, and, if necessary, people familiar with the location are contacted to confirm the deforestation. Field knowledge is fundamental for data validation.

For Amazon Mining Watch, the mine detector is an artificial neural network, which we train to discriminate mines from other terrain by feeding it hand-labeled examples of mines and other key features as they appear in Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. The network operates on square patches of data extracted from the Sentinel-2 L1C data product. Each pixel in the patch captures the light reflected from Earth’s surface in twelve bands of visible and infrared light. We average (median composite) the Sentinel data across a period of many months to reduce the presence of clouds, cloud shadow, and other transitory effects. During run time, the network assesses each patch for signs of recent mining activity, and then the region of interest is shifted by half a patch width for the network to make a subsequent assessment. This process proceeds across the entire region of interest.

2-5. Comparisons with Amazon Mining Watch

2. Altamira National Forest, Terra do Meio Ecological Station, Iriri State Forest, Riozinho do Anfrísio Extractive Reserve, Nascentes da Serra do Cachimbo Biological Reserve, and Rio Iriri Extractive Reserve.

3. As a comparison, Amazon Mining Watch indicates the total mining deforestation of 620 hectares in Altamira National Forest between 2018 and 2025.

4. As a comparison, Amazon Mining Watch indicates the total mining deforestation of 3 hectares in Terra do Meio Ecological between 2018 and 2025.

5. As a comparison, Amazon Mining Watch indicates the total mining deforestation of 51 hectares in Cachimbo Mountain Headwaters Biological Reserve between 2018 and 2025.

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Amazon, through a strategic collaboration between Amazon Conservation and regional partners, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. In this case, we thank our partner Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) for leading this report.

MAAP #239: Expansion of illegal gold mining in the Xingu Basin of the Brazilian Amazon (part 1. Indigenous Territories)

Posted on April 1, 2026April 18, 2026 by Matt Finer

Base Map. Mining sites in the Xingu Diversity Corridor. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, ISA.

Illegal mining continues to expand in the Brazilian Amazon, likely driven by rising gold prices. As of the end of 2025, the accumulated area of mining activity in the Brazilian Amazon is estimated to be 223,000 hectares, according to Amazon Mining Watch (see MAAP #197, MAAP #226, and MAAP #235 for additional context).

Notably, the largest concentration of gold mining deforestation is in the Xingu River Basin, which extends over 51 million hectares in the eastern Brazilian Amazon (states of Pará and Mato Grosso).

At the heart of this territory is the Xingu Socio-environmental Diversity Corridor, which is one of the largest continuous blocks (over 26 million hectares) of designated forests on the planet, connecting 24 Indigenous territories and 9 protected areas (see Base Map). Despite the official land designations, the area remains threatened due to the continual expansion of illegal gold mining, agriculture, logging, roads, and human-caused forest fires.

The corridor is home to 26 Indigenous groups, who have historically acted as guardians against the advance of the deforestation frontier. To address these challenges, the Xingu+ Network (Rede Xingu+) was created, a political alliance formed by 53 organisations (43 Indigenous, 5 riverine, and 5 civil society partners) representing the inhabitants of the Corridor. The origin of this alliance dates back to the resistance movements against the damming of the Xingu River in 1989, and, after decades of collaboration, the Network was formalised in 2013.

The Xingu+ Network monitors deforestation and other pressures in the Xingu Corridor monthly, using the radar-based SiRAD X (Xingu Remote Deforestation Alert System). The system also relies on a local network of partners who carry out on-site territorial surveillance activities.

In 2025, the Brazilian organization Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) partnered with Amazon Conservation, facilitating access to high-resolution optical images (from Planet), allowing for validation of alerts and identification of drivers. This collaboration also incorporates the online public dashboard known as Amazon Mining Watch, a partnership between Amazon Conservation, Earth Genome and the Pulitzer Center.

Both systems, SiRAD X and Amazon Mining Watch, have detected a major expansion of gold mining deforestation since 2018 in the Corridor, including continued illegal activity in the most recent time period of 2025. Throughout the report, we present data for both systems, noting their slight differences due to varying methodologies (Note 1), but the overall patterns of both datasets are consistent.

Overall, this mining deforestation currently impacts 5 Indigenous territories (Kayapó, Baú, Kuruaya, Trincheira Bacajá, and Apyterewa) and 5 protected areas (Altamira National Forest, Iriri State Forest, Riozinho do Anfrísio Extractive Reserve, Nascentes da Serra do Cachimbo Biological Reserve, and Rio Iriri Extractive Reserve) in the Xingu Corridor.

We present a two-part series on this illegal gold mining deforestation in the Xingu Corridor. Part 1, detailed below, focuses on the Indigenous territories, while the upcoming Part 2 will focus on the protected areas.

In this Part 1, we detail the recent gold mining deforestation in 3 Indigenous territories (Kuruaya, Baú, and Kayapó), including the presentation of a series of high-resolution images.

The Base Map indicates the focal areas of this series, with Points A-C covered in this report (Indigenous territories), and the remaining Points D-F in the second report (protected areas).

Mining in Indigenous Territories

Kuruaya Indigenous Territory

The Kuruaya Indigenous Territory (state of Pará, municipality of Altamira) has experienced gold mining activity since the early 1980s, on the Curuá River, where the villages of the Kuruaya are located. The most intense recent mining has occurred on a tributary of the Curuá River, known as the Madalena.

Since 2023, the Xingu+ Network monitoring has recorded the expansion of illegal gold mining along the Madalena. That year, a formal complaint was filed (via Official Letter 42/2023-Rede Xingu+), which reported the loss of around 3 hectares due to gold mining. In 2024, the activity intensified with the deforestation of another 13.4 hectares, and from January to July 2025, the Madalena mining operation had already expanded by another 17.8 hectares, for a cumulative total of 34.2 hectares.

Figures A1 and A2 show the expansion of the illegal gold mining along the Madalena between 2024 (left panels) and 2025 (right panels). This mining is expanding primarily towards the confluence of the Madalena with the Curuá River. In addition, the activity has spread to new, smaller areas in the surrounding region.

Figure A1. Mining in Kuruaya Indigenous Territory. Data: Planet/NICFI

Figure A2. Mining in Kuruaya Indigenous Territory. Data: Planet/NICFI

Amazon Mining Watch results for Kuruaya Indigenous Territory.

Amazon Mining Watch indicates the cumulative mining deforestation of 33 hectares in Kuruaya Indigenous Territory, including 4 hectares in 2025 (click here to see on AMW).

This mining is taking place within an active gold concession registered in the SIGMINE digital cadaster. Per the Brazilian Constitution, however, this type of concession (“lavra garimpeira” or exploitation permit for artisanal mining) is irregular within Indigenous territories (Note 2).

Baú Indigenous Territory

The Baú Indigenous Territory (state of Pará, municipality of Altamira) is inhabited by the Mebengôkre (Kayapó) Mekrãgnoti and isolated Purô peoples across its vast 1.5 million hectares. Illegal mining has impacted this territory since at least 2019, and has been the scene of several armed conflicts between miners and Indigenous members.

In the first half of 2025, active illegal mining sites were detected in several parts of the territory, most notably in the central mining site of Pista Velha. Pista Velha is an old mining site, but it was in 2019 that its reactivation became the scene of several armed conflicts between Indigenous peoples and gold miners, putting the lives of the Kayapó at risk. Efforts to reclaim this gold mine are ongoing and have been reported on numerous times by Rede Xingu+. In July 2025, an overflight confirmed the presence of mining activity in Pista Velha (see photo).

Overflight photo: Pista Velha mining site (Baú Indigenous Territory) on July 19, 2025. Photo: Xingu+ Network.

Figure B illustrates the gold mining expansion at Pista Velha between 2024 (left panel) and 2025 (right panel).

Figure B. Mining in Baú Indigenous Territory. Data: Planet/NICFI

Amazon Mining Watch results for Bau Indigenous Territory.

Amazon Mining Watch indicates the cumulative mining deforestation of 110 hectares in Bau Indigenous Territory, including 10 hectares in 2025 (click here to see on AMW.

Kayapó Indigenous Territory

The Kayapó Indigenous Territory (state of Pará, across four municipalities) has a long history of illegal mining dating back to the 1960s, and is the territory with the largest area deforested by illegal mining in the Brazilian Amazon.

Government operations to remove illegal miners from the Kayapó Indigenous Territory began in May 2025, in compliance with a Supreme Federal Court ruling (ADP 709), which aims not only to protect Indigenous peoples but also to contain the advance of illegal mining.

The first phase of these operations appears effective, as less than 2 hectares of new mining was detected in June 2025 by SIRAD-X monitoring. However, data from October indicates a small increase in mining in the territory, with an increase of 15 hectares.

Figures C1 and C2 show the recent advance of illegal mining in two locations of Kayapó Indigenous Territory between 2024 (left panels) and 2025 (right panels).

Figure C1. Mining in Kayapó Indigenous Territory. Data: Planet/NICFI

Figure C2. Mining in Kayapó Indigenous Territory. Data: Planet/NICFI

Amazon Mining Watch indicates the cumulative mining deforestation of 7,940 hectares in Kayapo Indigenous Territory, including 140 hectares in 2025 (click here to see on AMW). But much of this increase was detected in the first half of the year, indicating it might be a remnant of the 2024 expansion. Thus, much of that recently detected mining activity by Amazon Mining Watch likely happened in late 2024/early 2025 before the government intervention in May, consistent with the SiRAD X results stated above.

Amazon Mining Watch results for Kayapo Indigenous Territory.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the information presented above, it is clear that illegal mining in the Xingu basin is not an isolated activity. It has spread to both Indigenous territories and protected areas, indicating the existence of a support network that provides the operational capacity and infrastructure necessary for the activity. This expansion brings with it a series of serious risks to the region and its communities.

Illegal mining poses a direct threat to the territorial integrity and well-being of riparian and indigenous communities. The main consequences are the degradation of native areas and the contamination of rivers through the use of mercury. In addition to environmental damage, the expansion of illegal activity increases the risk of socio-environmental conflicts between miners and traditional communities, who seek to protect their territories and way of life.

Below, we propose a number of recommendations to Brazilian authorities with regards to: (i) the design of enforcement actions; (ii) community-based monitoring and restoration (iii) traceability of gold supply chains.

(i) Enforcement actions:

To ensure the long-term protection of indigenous territories from illegal mining, it is crucial to move beyond immediate removal operations and establish a sustainable, preventative framework. While the Brazilian government has initiated removal efforts in response to recent judicial orders, there is a notable absence of a long-term strategy to prevent the recurrence of these invasions. Effective and lasting solutions call for the involvement of various regulatory agencies and strategic interventions that extend beyond the geographical boundaries of the indigenous lands themselves. Therefore, the following policy actions are recommended:

Establish a permanent, multi-agency task force led by the President’s Chief of Staff (Casa Civil) to develop and implement a comprehensive, five-year strategic plan. This plan should focus on dismantling the external economic and logistical networks that sustain illegal mining, thereby preventing the return of invaders post-removal. The unique convening power of the Casa Civil is essential for orchestrating the necessary collaboration across different government ministries and agencies, ensuring a unified and effective national effort.

Promote integrated enforcement actions in the areas surrounding the territories to achieve the logistical strangulation of illegal operations. This should involve regulatory agencies alongside environmental enforcement and command-and-control bodies, such as the National Civil Aviation Agency – ANAC (for airfield inspections), the National Petroleum Agency – ANP (for fuel station inspections), and the National Land Transport Agency – ANTT (for road and highway inspections).
Strengthen agencies responsible for enforcement (IBAMA, ICMBio, and FUNAI) to ensure they have the capacity to operate regularly within the territories highlighted, by meeting their budgetary and personnel requirements.
Promote the implementation of long-term Protection Plans, guaranteeing a budget for the maintenance of regular enforcement and crime repression actions.

(ii) Community-based monitoring and restoration:

The promotion and strengthening of indigenous surveillance group initiatives for territory monitoring and restoration can complement government-led efforts. An additional benefit of these actions is that they represent sustainable economic alternatives within the territories and thus reduce the vulnerability of youth to recruitment by illegal groups. To this effect, the following actions could be undertaken:

Support the construction and maintenance of “Surveillance Centers” at strategic points (river confluences, TI boundaries), managed by the communities to ensure the physical occupation of remote areas, that produce relevant information for more effective State action.
Develop and implement Payment for Environmental Services (PES) schemes for community agents, recognizing territorial surveillance as essential work for biome conservation.
Strengthen governance actions within the territories by supporting meetings, assemblies, and forums, and promoting the development of management tools such as Territorial and Environmental Management Plans (PGTAs) and Consultation Protocols.
Promote and finance environmental recovery and decontamination/remediation actions in the most affected areas, in addition to continuous monitoring of mercury levels in the population.

(iii) Traceability of the gold supply chain:

The Brazilian government has already taken some steps to improve the regulation of the gold supply chain and requires the formal registration of the main actors involved in the ASM gold supply chain (such as miners, traders, and exporters). In 2023, it implemented the Electronic Fiscal Invoice for Gold (NF-e ouro), a mandatory document that verifies and records the origin of the mineral.

Nevertheless, additional measures are still necessary to continue to improve gold traceability mechanisms and implement better legislation for the control of mineral production and trade, such as the creation of a digital public portal containing mining titles, licenses, embargoes, and monitored areas, allowing buyers to verify the mining site linked to the Gold NF-e. This would significantly improve traceability for companies and purchasers importing gold from Brazil, thereby promoting a more transparent supply chain.

*Notes

1. Methodology of monitoring systems

For Amazon Mining Watch, the mine detector is an artificial neural network, which we train to discriminate mines from other terrain by feeding it hand-labeled examples of mines and other key features as they appear in Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. The network operates on square patches of data extracted from the Sentinel-2 L1C data product. Each pixel in the patch captures the light reflected from Earth’s surface in twelve bands of visible and infrared light. We average (median composite) the Sentinel data across a period of many months to reduce the presence of clouds, cloud shadow, and other transitory effects.During run time, the network assesses each patch for signs of recent mining activity, and then the region of interest is shifted by half a patch width for the network to make a subsequent assessment. This process proceeds across the entire region of interest.

2. Mining on Indigenous lands.

Per the Brazilian Constitution, the concession of “lavra garimpeira” or exploitation permit for artisanal mining is irregular within indigenous territories. (Molina, Luísa Pontes, 2023. Terra rasgada: como avança o garimpo na Amazônia brasileira. Instituto Socioambiental).

In this specific case, the concession, awarded in 1981, predates the approval of the Indigenous Territory Kuruaya in 2001. Following the approval, the concession holder (the firm Brasinor) also submitted a number of concessions for exploration within the territory, which appear to have been rejected. However, a protocol related to the previously active concession was approved by the National Mining Agency on January 30, 2026. The legality of this act, as well as of the concession itself, should be investigated.

A well-established principle in Brazilian law is that Indigenous land rights are effective prior to their formal recognition, thus the fact that the concession predates the approval of the territory is immaterial. If the ANM authorization is found irregular, the constitutional interdiction of mining within indigenous territories should prevail, and the concession be rescinded. A decision from federal courts in 2019 determined that the National Mining Agency must negate any request for exploration or exploitation within indigenous territories, even prior to their approval.

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Amazon, through a strategic collaboration between Amazon Conservation and regional partners, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. In this case, we thank our partner Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) for leading this report.

MAAP #238: Gold Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon, Southern Sector – Morona Santiago Province

Posted on February 18, 2026February 18, 2026 by Matt Finer

Base Map 1. Mining Deforestation in Ecuador. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP, RAISG

This is the third in a series of reports documenting the expansion of gold mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Previous reports (MAAP #227 and MAAP #230) analyzed the progress of this activity in the northern and central parts of the country, respectively, with a focus on the provinces of Sucumbíos and Napo.

This new report focuses on mining deforestation in the southern Ecuadorian Amazon, in the province of Morona Santiago.

Since 2023, Amazon Conservation, in collaboration with Earth Genome and the Pulitzer Center, has been developing an online geoviewer known as Amazon Mining Watch (MAAP #226). This virtual tool automates the analysis of satellite imagery using machine learning to identify areas affected by mining throughout the Amazon since 2018, and now features quarterly updates for the systematic detection of new gold mining fronts in real time.

Base Map 1 shows the locations of recent confirmed mining-related deforestation using detections from the latest quarterly update of Amazon Mining Watch across the Ecuadorian Amazon, in relation to the cumulative mining impact area (2018-2024). It can be seen that several Indigenous territories converge in the analysis area (purple circles).

Morona Santiago, the second largest province in Ecuador, is one of the country’s main conservation areas and the ancestral home of the Shuar and Achuar Indigenous nationalities. However, it is currently facing a growing threat due to the expansion of gold mining.

Case Studies

Base Map 2. Satellite monitoring area in Morona Santiago. Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

Cases 1 and 2 focus on mining activities within Shuar Arutam territory (Note 1), in southern Morona Santiago (see Base Map 2).

This territory faces increasing pressure from the expansion of the agricultural frontier, selective logging, and especially mining.

Over half (55%) of the territory is under concession for the extraction of metals such as gold, silver, and copper.

Case 3 focuses on mining in the north of the province; here, illicit mining has been identified within several Shuar territories (Samikim, Kankaiman, KainKaim, Yukuapais, and Pañiashña).

We conducted satellite monitoring aimed at quantifying the impact of illegal gold mining in these three case studies during the period 2020-2025.

Mining Activity in Morona Santiago (2020-2024)

Figure 1. Mining activity in Morona Santiago. Data: MapBiomas; EcoCiencia.

Graph 1 shows the cumulative mining deforestation in the Morona Santiago province between 2020 and 2024.

In 2020, mining impacted around 420 hectares as our baseline. In the subsequent years, we documented a rapid increase, reaching a total of 856 hectares (2,115 acres) by 2024.

This represents a doubling of the affected area in just four years.

Case 1. Santiago River

Case 1. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

This case is located along the Santiago River (see Case 1 in Base Map 2), between the Shuar Santiak, Mayaik, and Nunkui associations in the territory of the Shuar Arutam (see Note 2)

This river is among the most threatened areas in the territory, especially due to the expansion of mining.

In this area, we detected the mining deforestation of 197 hectares (486 acres) between January 2020 and October 2025.

Of this total, we estimate that 20% (41 hectares; 101 acres) is likely illegal, occurring outside areas authorized for mining activity

We selected two focal areas, both with recent mining impacts, along the Santiago River (see Areas A and B in Case 1).

Panel 1 illustrates the situation in Area A, comparing mining deforestation (as well as the expansion of access roads and the impact on the river) between August 2020 (left panel) and October 2025 (right panel). Of this total forest loss, we confirmed that 12 hectares (30 acres) were located outside of authorized concessions and therefore likely illegal.

In the Annex, Panel 2 shows an example of the territorial monitoring carried out by the Shuar Arutam using drones.

Panel 1 (Area A). Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Panel 3 illustrates the situation in Area B, comparing mining deforestation (and impact to the river) between August 2020 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel). Of this total forest loss, we confirmed that 9 hectares (22 acres) were located outside of authorized concessions and therefore likely illegal.

In the Annex, Panel 4 shows an example of the territorial monitoring carried out by the Shuar Arutam using drones.

Panel 3 (Area B). Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 2. Nayap

Case 2. Data: Ecociencia

This case is located along the Zamora River (see Case 2 in Base Map 2), on the western edge of the Churuwia association, near the Shuar Arutam community of Nayap. This territory is traditionally inhabited by Shuar communities.

In this area, we detected the mining deforestation of 164 hectares (405 acres) between January 2020 and October 2025.

Of this total, we estimate that 20% (31 hectares; 76 acres) is likely illegal, occurring outside areas authorized for mining activity

Panel 5 illustrates the situation in Case 2, comparing mining deforestation (and impact to the river) between January 2020 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel).

Panel 5. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 3.  Taisha 

This case is located in the northern part of Morona Santiago (see Case 3 in Base Map 2), within the Shuar Indigenous territories of Samikim, Kankaiman, Kainkaim, Yukuapais, and Pañiashña.

In this area, we detected the mining deforestation of 100 hectares (247 acres) between October 2024 and October 2025 (see Case 3).

Case 3. Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia, Planet

Panel 6 illustrates the situation in Case 3, comparing mining deforestation (and road expansion) between October 2024 (left panel) and October 2025 (right panel). The opening of these roads facilitates direct access for machinery, personnel, and supplies to previously inaccessible areas, increasing connectivity and accelerating the occupation of the territory.

Panel 6. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Policy recommendations

1. Strengthening Indigenous governance

Fundación EcoCiencia.

The cases analyzed show that, while Ecuadorian law broadly recognizes the right to citizen participation and the collective rights of indigenous peoples and nationalities in environmental and mining decisions, its implementation faces significant challenges. The legal framework distinguishes between environmental consultation as a diffuse right and prior, free, and informed consultation as a collective right, regulated by the Mining Law, the Organic Environmental Code, the Organic Law on Citizen Participation, and recent secondary legislation. However, the historical absence of a specific law and the gaps in the practical application of these mechanisms have generated tensions and questions regarding the quality of intercultural dialogue, effective access to information, and the real influence of communities in decision-making.

While the Escazú Agreement strengthens the Ecuadorian state’s obligations regarding environmental participation, access to information, and environmental justice, the cases reviewed show that these standards do not always translate into substantive processes that strengthen indigenous territorial governance. In particular, prior consultation is often conducted in isolation from permanent community-based monitoring and oversight mechanisms, which limits communities’ ability to continuously monitor extractive activities affecting their territories.

In this context, to strengthen indigenous governance, it is recommended to formally recognize indigenous monitors as legitimate actors within environmental monitoring and control processes, coordinating their work with existing institutional mechanisms. Additionally, it is proposed to implement a permanent satellite monitoring system integrated with community observation systems, allowing for the early detection of road construction and other illegal activities, and contributing to the realization of the principles of effective participation and intercultural dialogue.

2. Biocultural territorial planning

Fundación EcoCiencia.

The Constitution of Ecuador recognises interculturalism and plurinationality (articles 1 and 250), as well as the legal systems of indigenous peoples; similarly, the Escazú Agreement (article 7) promotes inclusive participation with intercultural approaches.

Within this framework, it is recommended to adopt a biocultural territorial planning approach that integrates indigenous life plans and governance systems as binding instruments in public decision-making.

No mining project can be approved without first being integrated into these local instruments, which are developed through community assemblies.

3. Controlling road expansion in Indigenous territories

Fundación EcoCiencia.

The development of a road in the Ecuadorian Amazon involves a series of fundamental environmental requirements, established in the national regulations in force as of 2025, to guarantee the protection of the environment, biodiversity, and the rights of local and indigenous communities.

These requirements are regulated primarily by the Organic Environmental Code (COA) and its Regulations (issued through Executive Decree 752 and subsequent amendments), the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court of Ecuador regarding environmental rights and the rights of Nature; and international human rights treaties such as the Escazú Agreement (in force in Ecuador since 2021).

We recommend requiring a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for all road projects in areas of high ecological sensitivity, especially in indigenous territories and protected areas.

The construction of roads without an environmental impact assessment and without applying the precautionary principle should be considered illegal and subject to reversal, prioritizing ecological restoration processes with the participation of local communities.

Notes

(1) Located in the Cordillera del Cóndor, between the Zamora and Yaupi rivers, the Shuar Arutam community is part of the Abiseo–Cóndor–Kutukú bio-corridor, an ecological bridge that connects the Tropical Andes biodiversity hotspot with one of the largest continuous wilderness areas of the Amazon rainforest. This mountain range protects areas of high biological importance, safeguards water sources, and harbors habitats of endemic species. Furthermore, it constitutes the ancestral territory of the Shuar people, where sacred sites preserve their spiritual and collective memory.

(2) The Santiago River flows through the Abiseo–Cóndor–Kutukú bio-corridor, one of the main biodiversity hotspots in the Ecuadorian Amazon (CARE et al., 2012), characterized by highly diverse ecosystems and the presence of numerous terrestrial and aquatic species (Schulenberg & Awbrey, 1997). Recent research even suggests that the river’s unique environmental conditions may be promoting speciation processes in fish due to its natural isolation (Provenzano & Barriga, 2018). In addition to mining, threats include hydroelectric projects, deforestation, overfishing, and the introduction of invasive species, which generate increasing pressures that degrade its ecosystems and severely affect native species.

Annex

Panels 2 and 4 highlight the territorial monitoring carried out by the Shuar Arutam using drones.

Panel 2 shows the expansion of mining deforestation between May (top panel) and November (bottom panel) of 2025.

Panel 2 (Area A). Data: Fundación EcoCiencia.

Panel 4 shows the expansion of mining impact between March (top panel) and November (bottom panel) of 2025, including more extensive excavation fronts and a greater accumulation of sediment.

Panel 4 (Area B). Data: Fundación EcoCiencia.

Citation

Villa J, García C, Barriga J, Finer M, Josse C, Aguilar C (2025). Minería en la Amazonía Ecuatoriana Sector Sur – Provincia de Morona Santiago. MAAP: 238.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Shuar Arutam for their contributions to this report.

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the organizations EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

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MAAP #237: Gold Mining Deforestation in Suriname: Current State & Expansion into Protected Areas

Posted on February 1, 2026February 2, 2026 by Matt Finer

Base Map. Suriname Gold Mining Deforestation. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, AMW, UMD, GONINI

In previous Amazon-level reports (MAAP #235, MAAP #226, MAAP #197), we have indicated extensive gold mining deforestation in Suriname, located in the northeast part of the Amazon biome.

Here, we take a closer look at the current situation in Suriname.

The Base Map illustrates the gold mining deforestation across Suriname, from 2001 to 2025. Note that historically (2001-2024), the gold mining deforestation (indicated in yellow and orange) is concentrated in the northeast part of the country, along the border with French Guiana.

Across this area, we estimate the gold mining deforestation to be around 89,000 hectares. Of that total, around 25,000 hectares (28%) occurred in the last four years of 2021-2024.

In addition, new data from Amazon Mining Watch indicates the most recent deforestation of 2,800 hectares in 2025 (indicated in red).

The Base Map also shows that Brownsberg Nature Park is the most impacted conservation area by mining, while Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve is starting to experience a mining invasion.

Below, we detail the current gold-mining deforestation situation in both of these conservation areas, highlighting how to use the near-real-time online dashboard Amazon Mining Watch.

Amazon Mining Watch

Amazon Mining Watch (a partnership between Amazon Conservation, Earth Genome, and the Pulitzer Centre) is an online tool that uses machine learning to automate the analysis of satellite imagery and identify areas affected by mining across the entire Amazon. Importantly, it now provides systematic near-real-time (quarterly) gold mining detection alerts.

The video shows how to use Amazon Mining Watch to detect the latest cases of mining-related deforestation, in this case, quarters 2 and 3 of 2025. Note the fresh mining deforestation alerts in the northeast, central, and southeast parts of Brownsberg Nature Park.

Brownsberg Nature Park

Figure 1. Gold mining deforestation in Brownsberg Nature Park. Data: ACA/MAAP, AMW, UMD, GONINI

Brownsberg Nature Park was established in 1969 and is managed by the Foundation for Nature Conservation in Suriname (STINASU).

Within the park, we estimate that gold mining deforestation amounted to 1,274 hectares from 2001 to 2024 (Figure 1).

This mining deforestation has impacted 8.8% of Brownsberg Nature Park’s total area (14,560 hectares).

Of this total, 315 hectares (26%) occurred in the last four years of 2021-2024 (indicated in orange). Note that this recent expansion is occurring in multiple sites across the park.

In addition, new data from Amazon Mining Watch indicates the most recent deforestation of 56 hectares in 2025 (indicated in red).

Panels A-C zoom in on three specific cases of recent (2025) mining deforestation in Brownsberg Nature Park. In each panel, we compare high-resolution satellite imagery from 2024 (left) and 2025 (right). In each of the right panels, we also include the detected mining area data from Amazon Mining Watch.

Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve

Figure 2. Gold mining invasion of Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve. Data: ACA/MAAP, AMW, UMD, GONINI

Figure 2 shows the area of detected gold mining invasion of Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve (see white inset).

Note that this incursion originates from a known mining zone to the southwest of the reserve.

This 3-part panel shows a series of satellite images detailing the entry and expansion of this mining area. The left panel is the baseline at February 2025. The middle panel shows the emergence of the new mining area in the reserve in March 2025. The right panel shows the expansion of this mining area to 1.3 hectares. The access road to this new mining area is approximately 2.3 km long.

Policy Implications

In response to this report and related information, the Suriname government has indicated plans to tighten its approach to illegal gold mining in Brownsberg Nature Park.

Specifically, the government will strengthen cooperation, coordination, and information sharing between the relevant agencies to more effectively and decisively combat illegal gold mining activities in the park. This agreement was reached during a meeting between the Ministry of Land Policy and Forest Management, STINASU, the Suriname Gold Sector Management Board, and the National Forest Service.

The result is expected to be joint enforcement actions against the illegal mining activity in Brownsberg Nature Park. In addition, structural and sustainability measures were also discussed to address the underlying causes of the illegal mining in the area.

Similar efforts are called for to address the invasion of Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve and prevent irreversible damage to the area.

Finally, Amazon Mining Watch fills a critical regional gap by enabling near–real-time detection of emerging and expanding gold-mining deforestation across the Amazon, including within protected areas. In countries where no official mining-specific detection systems exist, AMW provides a free and operational tool for the quarterly identification of new mining activity. It can also be integrated as a complementary data source to existing monitoring approaches, including satellite-based systems and drone-based field verification.

Acknowledgments

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. We thank Amazon Conservation Team for their helpful review.

MAAP #235: AI-powered detection of Amazon gold mining deforestation in real-time

Posted on November 13, 2025November 20, 2025 by Matt Finer

Screen shot from the updated Amazon Mining Watch site.

As gold prices continue to skyrocket and shatter historical records, small-scale, but widespread, gold mining activity also continues to be one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon.

In collaboration with its network of partners in the region, MAAP has produced many reports documenting the expansion of gold mining across the Amazon over the years, highlighting often previously undocumented cases (see archive).

Given the vastness of the Amazon, however, it has been a challenge to systematically detect all new mining fronts in real-time. Such a timely and comprehensive system is crucial to ensure that monitoring can be the basis for a swift and consistent enforcement response from authorities.

Since 2023, Amazon Conservation, in partnership with Earth Genome and the Pulitzer Center, has been developing an online dashboard known as Amazon Mining Watch (MAAP #226). This online tool automates the analysis of satellite imagery through machine learning to identify areas affected by mining across the entire Amazon, from 2018 to 2024.

In a major advance, we are glad to announce that Amazon Mining Watch (AMW) will now move to quarterly updates for this data, achieving systematic near-real-time detection of new artisanal gold mining fronts across the region.

Additional functionalities have been added to the AMW that will enhance the analysis related to illegal gold mining in the biome, namely: an analysis of the legality of mining sites, and an economic valuation of the social and environmental damage through the mining impacts calculator tool (see Annex).

FIRST QUARTERLY UPDATE REPORT: MINING EXPANSION ACROSS THE AMAZON

Here, we present our first quarterly update report based on this fresh data for quarters 2 and 3 of 2025 (April-September 2025). The following Base Map shows the locations of recent (Q3 of 2025) mining deforestation across the Amazon, in relation to the cumulative mining impact area previously detected.

Key findings from the first quarterly updates include:

We confirm the recent expansion of gold mining in all nine countries of the Amazon (37,109 hectares in 2025).
Brazil registered the largest recent mining expansion area (15,538 ha in 2025), followed by Peru (6,511 ha) and Guyana (4,942 ha).
In addition, Venezuela, Suriname, Ecuador, and Bolivia all had over 2,000 hectares of recent impact.
Guyana and Suriname have the largest area of mining-related deforestation relative to their size.
The total area of gold mining expansion in the second quarter of 2025 represents over 19,000 hectares
Mining expansion accelerated in the third quarter (July-Sept) of 2025, with over 17,000 hectares of forest lost to mining, almost twice the rate observed in the first half of the year.
Despite experiencing relatively widespread river-based mining, Colombia is the only country in the region that had been so far mostly spared from the impacts of gold mining on land (also referred to as “alluvial mining”). The recent crossing of alluvial mining along the Rio Puré from Brazil into Colombia, further described below, could put an end to this exception and explains almost single-handedly the sharp uptick seen in the last quarter (+58%).
In 2025, over 200 (222) protected areas and Indigenous territories experienced new mining activity, and therefore likely to represent illegal mining. The estimated mined area of these 2025 mining events is over 14,000 hectares (14,004 ha). Of this total, 56% occurred in protected areas, and 44% in Indigenous territories.

CASES OF RECENT GOLD MINING DEFORESTATION ACROSS THE AMAZON

Base Map. Amazon gold mining deforestation highlighted cases Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

The Base Map shows the locations of confirmed recent (Q3 of 2025) mining deforestation across the Amazon, in relation to the cumulative mining impact area.

In each set of panels displayed below, we show high-resolution satellite imagery before (left panel) vs after (right panel) the recent gold mining deforestation. The red polygons indicate the pixels highlighted by the AI model as a new quarter 3 mining deforestation event. Yellow polygons are previously detected pixels.

A. Rio Puré, Colombia-Brazil border

The Q3 2025 detection revealed that alluvial gold mining has, for the first time, crossed the border between Brazil and Colombia, into the Rio Puré National Park. A relatively large-scale operation appears to be ongoing and expanding in one of the most remote corners of the Amazon, affecting one of the largest intact forest landscapes still remaining globally.

Mining along the Rio Puré is estimated to have started around 2018, gradually expanding along the whole Brazilian portion of the river between the border with Colombia and where it meets the Japurá river, itself one of the major tributaries of the Amazon river. The clear difference in the river’s color between the last two quarters also reveals the amount of sediments released from the mining operation, which greatly increased water turbidity.

The verified expansion of the mining into the Colombian side, under National Park status, makes this a clear case for transboundary collaboration between the enforcement authorities of Brazil and Colombia. This incursion from Brazil represents the vast majority of mining-related deforestation in the country for the last quarter, and an almost 60% increase in area compared to the previous 7 years.

This case registers as a Very High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on Amazon Mining Watch.

B. Northern Ecuador

Figure B shows the recent mining deforestation outside of the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon. This area has experienced increasing mining impact in recent years, as further described in MAAP #227. Note that this mining activity is within the Puma Kucha, Indigenous territory. This case registers as a High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on Amazon Mining Watch.

C. San José de Karene Indigenous Territory, Peru

Figure C shows the recent mining deforestation in the San José de Karene Indigenous Territory in the southern Peruvian Amazon. As detailed in MAAP #208, much of the illegal mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon is occurring within the territory of Native Communities. This case registers as a High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on Amazon Mining Watch.

D. Pemon Indigenous Territory, Venezuela

The Pemon Indigenous territory stands out as the area most affected by gold mining in the last quarter, across all protected areas and indigenous territories of the region. The Pemon’s traditional territory is divided between an officially demarcated area, where mining increased by more than 100 hectares in the last quarter, and a much greater and yet-to-be-demarcated area, where mining increased by a staggering 700 ha in the last quarter only, a steep acceleration from the first semester of 2025. The Pemon’s territory encompasses part of the outstanding geological wonder Mount Roraima, a flat-topped mountain of immense cultural significance to local peoples. Mount Roraima harbors unique biodiversity and inspired Michael Crichton’s novel “The Lost World”.

This case registers as a High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Brazil

Figure E shows the recent mining deforestation in the Amapá State Forest in the northeastern Brazilian Amazon. The forest is managed to benefit local communities through initiatives like sustainable agroecology and improved management of wood and non-forest products. This marks the first time this area has been highlighted by MAAP. This case registers as a Very High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Figure F shows the recent mining deforestation in the Tapajós Environmental Protection Area in the central Brazilian Amazon. It is in the western portion of the BR-163 Sustainable Forest District. As noted in MAAP #226, Tapajós EPA is one of the Amazon’s top ten most impacted protected areas (in terms of accumulated footprint), including high levels of new mining deforestation in 2024. This case registers as a Very High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Figure G shows the recent mining deforestation in Jamanxim National Forest in the central Brazilian Amazon. As noted in MAAP #226, Jamanxim NF is one of the Amazon’s top ten most impacted protected areas (in terms of accumulated footprint). This case registers as a Very High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Figure H shows the recent mining deforestation in the Grão-Pará Ecological Station in the northeast Brazilian Amazon, along the border with Guyana. It is the largest strictly protected tropical forest research station in the world. This marks the first time this area has been highlighted by MAAP. This case registers as a Very High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Suriname

Figure I show recent mining deforestation in northeast Suriname. This marks the first time this specific area has been highlighted by MAAP. This case registers as a High probability of being illegal based on the legality layer. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Guyana

Figure J shows the recent mining deforestation in northwestern Guyana, near the border with Venezuela. This marks the first time this specific area has been highlighted by MAAP. For more information, consult the scene on the Amazon Mining Watch.

Annex

New functionality: Legality of mining sites

Based on an analysis of potential overlaps with land designations and applicable regulations, a location-based presumption of illegality of mining operations was incorporated into the AMW. We classified the presumption of illegality from very high to low, using the following descriptions:

Very High: Activity is occurring without a permit and within a protected area that doesn’t allow for any kind of resource exploitation
High: Activity if occurring outside of any explicit concession for doing so
Medium: Activity is happening within a concession, but active status could not be verified and/or concession doesn’t meet legal requirements
Low: Activity is happening within active concession, but compliance with all requirements could not be verified

This functionality is available for 5 countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and will be extended to the rest of Amazonian countries in 2026. Based on national datasets of land designations, it provides an immediate overview of the likelihood of illegality of ASM in any area of analysis.

New functionality: Mining impacts calculator

The Mining Impacts Calculator, developed by Conservation Strategy Fund, is a tool to assess the social and environmental damage caused by gold mining. The tool uses an economic formula to estimate effects on the environment and society by inputting variables such as the size of the mine, the amount of gold produced and the time of extraction. The automated formula uses average mining productivity and data-driven impact parameters to deliver contextualized data to the user.

The calculator can be used for three main purposes: to estimate social and environmental damage values to calculate the amount of financial compensation needed to mitigate the costs, to estimate the most efficient investment amounts for future impact planning and the prevention of negative impacts, and to estimate the recommended amount of investment in mercury-free technologies needed.

Notes/Methodology

Note that in this report, we focus on mining activity that causes deforestation. The vast majority is artisanal or small-scale gold mining, but other mining activities have also been detected, such as iron, aluminum, and nickel mines in Brazil and Colombia. Additional critical gold mining areas in rivers that are not yet causing deforestation (such as in northern Peru (MAAP #233), southeast Colombia (MAAP #228), and northwest Brazil (MAAP #197), are not included in this report. This information is not yet displayed in Amazon Mining Watch, but future updates will include river-based mining hotspots.

Our data source for protected areas and Indigenous territories is from RAISG (Amazon Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information), a consortium of civil society organizations in the Amazon countries. This source (accessed in December 2024) contains spatial data for 5,943 protected areas and Indigenous territories, covering 414.9 million hectares across the Amazon.

Amazon Mining Watch (AMW) is a partnership between Earth Genome, the Pulitzer Center’s Rainforest Investigations Network, and Amazon Conservation. The algorithm is based on 10-meter-resolution imagery from the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2 satellite and produces 480-meter resolution pixelated mining deforestation alerts. Although the data is not designed for precise area measurements, it can be used to give timely estimates needed for management and conservation purposes.

Acknowledgments

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

MAAP #234: Illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park, including on top of Yapacana Tepui (Venezuelan Amazon)

Posted on October 14, 2025October 18, 2025 by Matt Finer

Intro Image. Illegal gold mining deforestation (in red) on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: Planet

In a series of previous reports, and in collaboration with SOS Orinoco, we have tracked the illegal gold mining deforestation and related impacts in Yapacana National Park, located in the Venezuelan Amazon.

Critically, some of this illegal mining activity has been happening on top of the Yapacana tepui (see red circles in Intro Image).

Tepuis are stunning table-top mountains found in northern South America. They are considered sacred by indigenous groups of the Guiana Shield region; in fact, the word tepui means “mountain” in the local indigenous (Pemon) language.

In 2022, we published an urgent report about the illegal mining on top of the Yapacana tepui (MAAP #169). In this report, we documented over 400 points of mining camps and heavy machinery, indicating an organized and large-scale operation, causing the deforestation of 8.8 hectares on top of the tepui.

Given the importance of this finding, the Washington Post published a high-profile article on the subject, further exposing the severity of the illegal mining on the tepui.

In response, the Venezuelan government conducted a military operation against illegal mining activity on the tepui in December 2022.

In early 2024, we reported that all illegal mining camps and equipment on top of the tepui had been removed (MAAP #207). Indeed, we detected no additional mining deforestation on top of the tepui during 2024.

However, we now present evidence that the illegal mining activity has resumed on top of the tepui in 2025.

We also show continuing mining deforestation surrounding the tepui in other parts of Yapacana National Park. As of the time of the government intervention in late 2022, we detected the cumulative mining deforestation of 2,190 hectares in the park, including large increases in both 2021 and 2022 (MAAP #173). This mining deforestation has slowed, particularly in 2024 and 2025, but has now impacted 2,240 hectares in the park.

Gold Mining Deforestation in Yapacana National Park, 2020-2025

Figure 1 presents our digitized results for annual mining deforestation across all mining areas in Yapacana National Park, based on an analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery.

Graph 1. Mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park. Data: ACA/MAAP

Graph 1 shows the trends found in the digitized data of Yapacana National Park.

The orange line shows the annual mining deforestation decreasing following the highs detected in 2021 and 2022. Both years had over 400 hectares of new mining deforestation, while 2024 had just 37 hectares.

The red line shows the cumulative mining deforestation rising from the baseline in 2020 before plateauing in 2024 and 2025, with a current deforestation total of 2,250 hectares.

Gold Mining Deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui, 2020-2025

Figure 2. Mining deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet, NICFI.

Figure 2 presents our digitized results for annual mining deforestation on top of the Yapacana Tepui, based on an analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery.

Graph 2. Mining deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: ACA/MAAP,

Graph 2 shows the trends found in the digitized data on top of Yapacana Tepui.

The orange line shows the annual mining deforestation of about 2 hectares in both 2021 and 2022, followed by a notable decrease after the government intervention in late 2022. In fact, there was zero detected mining deforestation in 2024, followed by the reappearance detailed in this report.

The red line shows the cumulative mining deforestation rising from the baseline in 2020 before plateauing in 2024 and 2025, with a current deforestation total of 9.3 hectares.

Recent Gold Mining Deforestation Events, 2024-2025

Base Map. Boxes A-C indicate location of detailed analysis below. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet, NICFI

In the Base Map, Insets A-C indicate the three areas with documented gold mining expansion between 2024 and 2025, based on an analysis of very high-resolution satellite imagery.

Below, we provide a more detailed examination of these three areas.

Illegal gold mining on top of the Yapacana Tepui

Zoom A shows the recent gold mining deforestation of 0.09 hectares between January 2024 (left panel) and August 2025 (right panel), located on the top of the Yapacana Tepui in Yapacana National Park. Although a small expansion, it indicates the return of illegal mining on the tepui.

Zoom A. Gold mining deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP

Illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park

Zoom B shows the recent gold mining deforestation of 22.4 hectares between March 2024 (left panel) and August 2025 (right panel) in Yapacana National Park, just to the north of the Yapacana Tepui. There are also signs of mining equipment associated with this activity.

Zoom B. Gold mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP

Zoom C shows the recent gold mining deforestation of 1.01 hectares between March 2024 (left panel) and August 2025 (right panel) in Yapacana National Park, just to the north of the Yapacana Tepui.

Zoom C. Gold mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP

Policy Implications:

Photo of illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park. Credit: SOSOrinoco

Mining is strictly prohibited in all Venezuelan national parks. This legal protection is fundamental to the conservation of the country’s most biodiverse and ecologically significant areas.

In addition, mining is explicitly prohibited in Amazonas (state in which Yapacana National Park is located) by Presidential Decree No. 269 (1989). This decree was enacted to safeguard the unique ecosystems and indigenous territories of the region, recognizing their global and national importance.

To enforce these legal prohibitions, there is a permanent command post of the Bolivarian National Guard at the entrance of Yapacana National Park. The presence of this security force raises important questions about the effectiveness and willingness of law enforcement and the actual control over activities within the park.

Although the recent mining deforestation on top of the Yapacana Tepui in 2025 is quantitatively small (0.09 hectares), it highlights the importance of early detection and response, especially in such ecologically and culturally sensitive zones. The fact that this renewed activity occurs in the presence of a permanent National Guard command post raises serious concerns about the effectiveness of enforcement and the real capacity of the state to prevent illegal operations. It also suggests that even minimal incursions should not be dismissed, as they may signal the beginning of a new cycle of degradation.

Fuel distribution in the region is officially managed by PDVSA (the state oil company) under strict military supervision. However, given Amazonas’ status as a border state with Colombia and Brazil, gasoline may also be sourced from one of them, most likely Colombia, due to its proximity. The transport of fuel—whether Venezuelan or Colombian—requires the use of boats or helicopters, both of which are highly visible and subject to monitoring by the Bolivarian National Armed Forces. This context places the Armed Forces at the center of the logistical dynamics that either enable or prevent illegal mining, as both aerial control and fuel supply are essential for mining operations.

These facts invite us to reflect critically on the disconnect between legal frameworks and on-the-ground realities. How is it possible that illegal mining persists and even expands in areas with such clear legal protection and a strong security presence? What are the implications for conservation, indigenous rights, and the rule of law? The answers to these questions are crucial for understanding the challenges facing protected areas in Venezuela and for designing more effective strategies to address them.

This entire situation highlights the need to establish mechanisms to monitor illegal gold trafficking, both at its exit points outside the country and on the routes to the markets where the gold is refined and sold.

Biodiversity impacts:

Photo of Yapacana Tepui. Credit: SOSOrinoco

Yapacana Tepui (Cerro Yapacana), a sandstone mountain rising to 1,345 meters above sea level in the southwestern quadrant of Yapacana National Park (PNY), is a geomorphologically and ecologically unique formation within the Venezuelan Amazon. The park encompasses a mosaic of landscapes, including alluvial plains, erosion-alteration peneplains, and nutrient-poor white sand savannas, which host highly specialized vegetation with floristic links to both the Paleotropics and Neotropics. The mountain itself supports two distinct montane forest types—submontane evergreen forests on its slopes and cloud forests on its summit—harboring at least eight critically endangered endemic plant species. These ecosystems are part of the ancestral territory of Arawako, Huottüja (Piaroa), and Mako peoples, who regard the tepui as sacred (MARNR-ORSTOM 1988; Castillo y Salas 2007; SOSOrinoco 2019).

Illegal gold mining has emerged as a major threat to the integrity of these ecosystems, particularly on the summit of Cerro Yapacana, where deforestation from mining camps and machinery has directly impacted the fragile forest habitat. The destruction of summit vegetation not only endangers endemic flora but also disrupts ecological processes vital to the survival of species such as the Yapacana antbird (Myrmeciza disjuncta) and the red Yapacana frog (Minyobates steyermarki), both of which are exclusive to this tepui. Mining-induced deforestation across the park has reached over 2,240 hectares, threatening the continuity of forest cover, savannas and the ecological connectivity essential for species migration and resilience (Huber 1995; Llamozas et al., 2003; Lentino, 2006; Señaris and Rivas, 2006).

The broader biodiversity of Yapacana National Park is also at risk, including its designation as an Important Bird Area (IBA) due to the presence of species such as Crax alector, Selenidera nattereri, and migratory birds like Dendroica striata. The park hosts over 260 bird species, alongside 51 reptiles and 29 amphibians (Lentino, 2006; Señaris and Rivas, 2006). The illegal mining not only degrades these habitats but also introduces pollutants and human disturbance, undermining conservation efforts and threatening the survival of species with restricted ranges and specialized ecological requirements. Urgent and sustained action is needed to halt further degradation and safeguard the exceptional biodiversity of Cerro Yapacana and its surrounding ecosystems (SOSOrinoco, 2019).

Acknowledgements

We thank the organization SOSOrinoco for important information and comments related to this report.

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Amazon, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

MAAP #233: Current situation of gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon

Posted on September 29, 2025February 4, 2026 by Matt Finer

Base Map. Gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon.

Gold mining continues to increase in the Peruvian Amazon. Following the initial success of the major multisectoral government intervention Operation Mercury in southern Peru in early 2019 (MAAP #104, MAAP #121, MAAP #130), the illegal mining activity rebounded during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the government withdrew from the area (Vadillo, 2022).

The current increase, directly linked to soaring international gold prices, has led to expanding mining activity: continuing mining in southern Peru, and emerging mining fronts in the central and northern parts of the country.

This report presents information on the current state of gold mining activity, in both forests and rivers, across all of the Peruvian Amazon.

Notably, we report that gold mining has spread to nine regions across the Peruvian Amazon: Amazonas, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco, Puno, and Ucayali.

Total gold mining deforestation has reached 139,169 hectares (343,894 acres) as of mid-2025, the vast majority (97.5%) in the Madre de Dios region of southern Peru. The Huánuco and Puno regions have also experienced rising mining deforestation (1,262 and 1,014 hectares, respectively).

Moreover, alluvial gold mining is also expanding in numerous rivers across the Peruvian Amazon, especially in the northern regions of Loreto and Amazonas. We have identified 989 mining dredges in Loreto since 2017, followed by 174 in Amazonas.

Overall, we have documented gold mining activity in 225 water bodies (rivers and streams) across the Peruvian Amazon.

Below, we present the detailed results of this report in three regional sections: northern Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, and Loreto); central Peru (Huánuco, Pasco, and Ucayali); and southern Peru (Cusco, Madre de Dios, and Puno). Each section presents information about mining in forests (deforestation) and rivers.

Base Map. Data: ACA, ACCA, CINCIA, FEMA, SZF, IBC, SERNANP, Mapbiomas Perú

Northern Peru

Gold mining has spread to both the forests and rivers of Amazonas, Cajamarca, and Loreto regions of the northern Peruvian Amazon (Figure 1).

Gold mining deforestation has impacted 491 hectares, located near rivers and within Indigenous communities (see red areas in Figure 1). The mining deforestation has been localized along the Chinchipe River in Cajamarca, and near the Marañón River in Amazonas and Loreto.

Figure 1. Gold mining in the northern Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACCA, FEMA, SZF, IBC, SERNANP

Figure 1A. Gold mining deforestation along the Sawintsa River, Amazonas region. Data: ACCA, Maxar

We highlight the recent mining deforestation along the Sawintsa River near the Peru-Ecuador border in the Amazonas and Cajamarca regions (Figura 1A).

Figure 1B. Mining dredges identified in the Nanay River (Loreto). Data: Planet, ACCA

In addition, river-based mining has emerged as a critical issue in northern Peru, where we have documented mining barges in at least 14 rivers (see yellow dots in Figure 1).

Loreto is the most impacted region, where we have documented 989 mining dredges between 2017 and 2025.

The Nanay River, located in Loreto, is the most impacted by mining dredges Figure 1B. We have identified 841 mining dredges since 2017, including 275 in 2025. This mining activity extends into Indigenous communities and the Alto Nanay – Pintuyacu – Chambira Regional Conservation Area.

Mining also impacts the Cenepa and Santiago Rivers, located in Amazonas. We have identified 137 and 51 mining dredges, respectively, in these rivers since 2022. Some of this mining activity surrounds Indigenous communities in Amazonas.

Central Peru

Gold mining also impacts both the forests and rivers of Huánuco, Pasco and Ucayali regions in the central Peruvian Amazon (Figure 2).

Gold mining deforestation has reached 1,320 hectares, located along rivers, in Indigenous communities, in the Carpish Montane Forest Regional Conservation Area, and in the buffer zone of the El Sira Communal Reserve (see red areas in Figure 2).

Figure 2. Gold mining in the central Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACCA

Figure 2A. Gold mining deforestation due in Puerto Inca province, Huánuco region. Data: Maxar, ACCA

The Huánuco region is the most impacted by mining deforestation in central Peru, with the vast majority (97%) occurring in the province of Puerto Inca (Figure 2A).

Figura 2b. Deforestación por minería de oro aledaño al río Chinchihuani, región Pasco. Datos: Maxar, ACCA

In the Pasco region, gold mining deforestation has been recorded in pending mining concessions along the Chinchihuani River since August 2024 (Figure 2B).

Gold mining in the Ucayali region has been located along the Abujao River.

Figure 2C. Mining dredges in the Aguaytía River, Ucayali region. Data: Maxar, ACCA

In addition, river-based mining is impacting the Aguaytía River, in the Ucayali region (see yellow dots in Figure 2).

We first detected mining dredges in mid-2024 (Figure 2C) in this area, located near the buffer zone of Cordillera Azul National Park.

In total, we have identified 26 mining dredges in the Aguaytía River in 2024 and 2025.

Southern Peru

Gold mining deforestation has had major impacts in the regions of Cusco, Madre de Dios, and Puno, in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Note in Figure 3 that mining deforestation (indicated in red) is the dominant impact, and not mining barges as seen in the northern Peruvian Amazon.

We have documented the gold mining deforestation of 137,558 hectares (339,913 acres) in these southern regions, accounting for 98.7% of total mining deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon. This massive gold mining deforestation started in 1984 in Madre de Dios.

Figure 3. Gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACA, ACCA, CINCIA, Mapbiomas Perú, AMW

Figure 3A. Gold mining deforestation in the buffer zone of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: Planet

Madre de Dios has the highest gold mining deforestation of all the regions in Peru (135,939 hectares), accounting for 97.5% of the national total.

This widespread mining deforestation in Madre de Dios has extended into Indigenous communities and the buffer zones of protected areas, such as Tambopata National Reserve (Figure 3A) and Amarakaeri Communal Reserve.

Figura 3b. Deforestación por minería oro en la Concesión para Conservación Camanti Sostenible. Datos: Maxar

In the Cusco region, gold mining deforestation has spread to various areas around the Araza and Nusiniscato Rivers.

Además, parte de la deforestación por minería se ha extendido al interior de la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Comunal Amarakaeri y en la Concesión para Conservación Camanti Sostenible (Figura 3b).

Figure 3C. Gold mining deforestation near the Huari Huari River. Source: ACCA, Maxar

The Puno region has experienced gold mining deforestation near the Inambari and Huari Huari Rivers (Figure 3C), surrounding the buffer zone of the Bahuaja Sonene National Park.

Figura 3d. Tracas en pozas mineras en la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Nacional Tambopata. Fuente: Planet

In Madre de Dios, we have detected over 2,000 pieces of mining infrastructure, such as drills, chutes, dredges, and mining rafts (Figure 3D) (ACCA, 2022).

Policy recommendations for gold mining in Peru:

Gold mining in Peru represents one of the country’s greatest socio-environmental challenges, impacting Amazonian forests, rivers, and local communities (Arana Cardó, M, 2024). In response, we present five policy proposals aimed at minimizing this impact, focusing on 1) implementing gold traceability, 2) strengthening the Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) Law, 3) establishing environmental obligations, 4) strengthening supervision, and 5) promoting clean technologies (including banning mercury).

1. Implement an effective gold traceability system that links production, marketing, and export

Foto: ACCA

Currently, the Special Registry of Gold Traders and Processors, created by Ministerial Resolution No. 249-2012-MEM-DM, lacks effective mechanisms for cross-referencing information.

Therefore, it is recommended to consolidate a comprehensive traceability system that covers not only producers, traders, processors, and exporters, including the jewelry industry, but also the control of critical inputs such as mercury and fuels, in order to guarantee supply chains free of contamination and illegal activities.

This system must integrate real-time digital controls, cross-reference information between what is declared as production and what is actually traded, prevent the illegal export of gold in the form of jewelry, and align with international due diligence requirements.

2. Strengthening the Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) Law & improving the formalizatin registry (REINFO)

Foto: ACCA

Regulations on small-scale and artisanal mining should establish clear categories based on production and technology, differentiating the formalization process (aimed at pre-existing informal miners and includes phased-in measures and technical support) from the ordinary permitting process, which requires full compliance with environmental and technical requirements for new projects.

The new law for Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) should incorporate real incentives for formalization and the adoption of sustainable practices, effective oversight mechanisms, and the delimitation of exclusive zones for formalized activity, excluding natural Protected Areas, Indigenous reserves, bodies of water, and cultural heritage sites.

Additionally, this new regulation must establish mandatory due diligence throughout the gold value chain, linking the formalization process to the implementation of a traceability system. Thus, formalized miners must not only comply with basic legal requirements but also ensure that their production is free of illegal inputs such as mercury, meeting international standards of transparency and sustainability.

Likewise, given the formalization extension granted until December 31, 2025, in Supreme Decree No. 012-2025-EM, it is essential that the government improve the Comprehensive Registry of Mining Formalization (REINFO in Spanish), permanently removing those who do not meet the minimum requirements established in Law No. 32213 and its regulations, as indicated by its update through Supreme Decree No. 009-2025-EM. Furthermore, proportional sanctioning mechanisms must be evaluated to discourage the misuse of the registry. Only in this way will it be possible to prevent this registry from continuing to be used as a shield of impunity against the actions of the Public Prosecutor’s Office and the National Police, and to ensure that formalization translates into an effective change in mining practices.

3. Establish environmental obligations from the beginning of mining formalization & ensure their supervision

Foto: ACCA

Regulations should establish that all small-scale and artisanal mining activities must be subject to the respective environmental obligations from the initial formalization process, in order to ensure early and effective oversight.

During this process, operations must be subject to governmental oversight by the Environmental Assessment and Oversight Agency (OEFA in Spanish), the Supervising Agency for Investment in Energy and Mining (OSINERGMIN in Spanish), and the National Superintendence of Labor Inspection (SUNAFIL in Spanish). Likewise, administrative and criminal sanctions must be applied to responsible authorities who fail to fulfill their oversight duties.

Additionally, forest zoning should be promoted and advanced, in accordance with the provisions of the Forestry Law (Law No. 29763), with an emphasis on the Amazon regions of Peru. This should be integrated into the mining formalization process and become a formal requirement for granting permits. The integration of zoning will prevent the granting of new permits in priority forests for conservation, reducing deforestation and misuse of forests by directing mining toward areas of lower impact and prohibiting it in critical areas. This would require mining formalization authorities to consult zoning maps from the outset. That is, applicants must include the forest zoning category of their plot and demonstrate compatibility before issuing a permit.

4. Strengthen ASM supervision at the regional level through inter-institutional agreements

Foto: ACCA

We propose the signing of agreements between OEFA and the Amazonian regional governments, accompanied by technical support and technological equipment for real-time monitoring of operations in remote areas.

Furthermore, following the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines, the formation of specialized multidisciplinary teams to support field supervision is recommended, helping to close capacity gaps and ensure the effectiveness of environmental monitoring in critical territories.

5. Promote clean technologies and ban the use of mercury by 2030.

Foto: ACCA

In compliance with the Minamata Convention, Peru must adopt a policy to phase out mercury in gold mining.

To this end, it is recommended that miners be facilitated access to clean technologies through loans, subsidies, or tax benefits, ensuring safer processes for the environment and public health, so that the technological transition increases gold recovery and reduces impacts on rivers and local communities.

However, this policy must be accompanied by specific goals for the protection of forest resources, as well as stricter sanctions for those who continue to use mercury and generate deforestation, thus ensuring true environmental and public health protection. Furthermore, these goals must be expressly incorporated into the Minamata Convention’s National Action Plan, ensuring its effective and coordinated implementation throughout the country.

Methodology

The identification of gold mining deforestation in Peru was based on the visual interpretation of high- and very high-resolution satellite imagery available on Planet, Maxar, and Google Earth Pro for the regions of Amazonas, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Pasco, Puno, and Ucayali. We conducted a preliminary review of maps and platforms related to mining detection in Peru (the Early Detection and Environmental Monitoring System of the Peruvian Ministry of the Environment, Amazon Mining Watch, and Mapbiomas Perú) to locate potential mining areas. In addition, we compiled reports and newspaper articles related to gold mining in different regions of the country to identify mining areas, as well as direct communications from representatives of different institutions regarding signs of mining activity at the local level. Based on these preliminary processes, we identified gold mining deforestation using satellite imagery. Additionally, we conducted monitoring of mining-related deforestation using monthly Planet NICFI mosaics (4.7 m spatial resolution) to track the expansion of mining-related deforestation and identify new nearby mining areas.

The identification of gold mining deforestation in Madre de Dios used historical mining deforestation information generated by the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center (CINCIA) for the years 1984 – 2019, by Mapbiomas Perú for the year 2020, and by Amazon Conservation (ACA) for the period January 2021 – March 2024. Then, we used the LandTrendR algorithm to identify forest loss in monthly mosaics of Planet NICFI for the period April 2024 – July 2025. Subsequently, we conducted a manual review to identify forest loss resulting from gold mining and other causes.

The identification of river-based mining was based on the visual interpretation of very high-resolution satellite imagery available on Planet, Maxar, and Google Earth Pro for various Amazonian rivers and mining areas in Peru. In addition, confidential reports and direct communications from various institutions regarding the presence of mining infrastructure in Amazonian rivers were included.

References

Arana Cardó, M. (2024). Minería ilegal en la Amazonía peruana: Informe sobre las actividades mineras en las regiones amazónicas de Loreto, San Martín, Amazonas, Ucayali, Madre de Dios y Huánuco. Fundación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sostenible Perú (FCDS). https://fcds.org.pe/wpcontent/uploads/2024/07/Resumen_Ejecutivo_informe_mineria_compressed-1.pdf

Delfino, E. (20 de julio de 2025). Minería ilegal en Perú: “Hay una presión internacional por el oro y los principales países consumidores no realizan una debida diligencia respecto al origen” | ENTREVISTA. Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/2025/07/mineria-ilegal-peru-oro-amazonia-contaminacion/

OCDE (2016). OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas: Third Edition. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252479-en.

Vadillo Vila, J. (2022). La minería ilegal y su impacto en tiempos de pandemia. Diario El Peruano. https://elperuano.pe/noticia/170967-la-mineria-ilegal-hoy

Zapata Perez, M., Arana Cardo, M., Ramires Valle, D., Castro Sánchez-Moreno, M., Garay Tapia, K., Rivadeneyra Tello, G., Vega Ruiz, C. y Cabanillas Vasquez, F. (2025). 10 propuestas para la formalización efectiva de la pequeña minería y minería artesanal. Observatorio de Minería Ilegal. https://www.observatoriomineriailegal.org.pe/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/10_propuestas_ley_MAPE_020525.pdf

Citation

Pacsi R, Novoa S, Yupanqui O, Quispe M, La Torre S, Balbuena H, Huamán B, Valdivia G, Castañeda C, Soria M, Finer M, Santana A (2025) Current situation of gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 233.

Acknowledgments

MAAP #232: The Amazon Tipping Point – Importance of Flying Rivers Connecting the Amazon

Posted on September 12, 2025November 26, 2025 by Matt Finer

Intro Map. Amazon moisture flow (aerial river) for the southwest Amazon. Source: Amazon Conservation/MAAP

The Amazon biome, stretching over a vast area across nine countries in northern South America, is renowned for its extreme diversity (biological and cultural) and its abundant water resources. Indeed, the major features of the Amazon are linked by interconnected water flows, both on land and in the air (Beveridge et al. 2024).

The natural phenomenon of aerial moisture transport and recycling, also known as “aerial rivers” and popularized in the press as “flying rivers,” has emerged as an essential concept related to the conservation of the Amazon. In short, moisture flows from the Atlantic Ocean across the Amazon, uniquely facilitated by the rainforest itself. As they move westward, these flying rivers drop water onto the forest below. The forest subsequently transpires moisture back into them, thus recycling water and supporting rainforest ecosystems far from the Ocean source. For example, the Intro Map illustrates the aerial river for the southwest Amazon.

Continued deforestation and forest degradation, however, will disrupt and diminish the critical east-to-west aerial water flow, inducing a “tipping point” of impacted regions that would transition from rainforest to drier savannah ecosystems.

In this report, we aim to both summarize the current state of knowledge on the movement of atmospheric moisture across the Amazon and develop novel analyses based on this information. Overall, we aim to show the critical connections between the eastern and western Amazon, and how these connections change during the major seasons (wet, dry, and transition) of the year.

Our analysis is divided into three main parts:

First, we summarize the state of knowledge on the movement of atmospheric moisture across the Amazon, drawing on a review of recent literature and exchanges with experts. Second, we identify the sensitive areas that are the most vulnerable to deforestation-caused disruption of moisture recycling. Third, we relate these sensitive areas in the west to their respective eastern key source areas for moisture for each of the three Amazonian seasons: wet, dry, and transition.

In summary, we identified the sensitive areas that are the most vulnerable to deforestation-caused disruption of moisture recycling from the Atlantic Ocean source are mostly located in the southwestern Amazon (Peru and Bolivia). For the wet season, much of the moisture flow to these sensitive areas crosses the continuous primary (non-deforested) forests of the northern Amazon. For the dry and transition seasons, however, the moisture flow to the sensitive areas must cross several major deforestation fronts located in the eastern Brazilian Amazon.

Thus, an important contribution of this work is to reveal that, contrary to the common perception that the tipping point is a single Amazon-wide event, certain parts of the Amazon are more vulnerable than others. Most notably, the southwestern Amazon (Peru and Bolivia) is most vulnerable to a possible tipping point, particularly stressed by disrupted dry season moisture flows over major deforestation fronts.

1. Movement of aerial moisture across the Amazon (moisture flow)

Figure 1. Amazon moisture flows by season for the SW Amazon. Data: ERA5, ACA/MAAP

Driven by permanent trade winds, aerial (atmospheric) moisture flows westward from its source in the Atlantic Ocean, across the Amazon lowlands, and toward the Andes Mountains. These moisture routes are recharged by evapotranspiration and discharged by precipitation, creating moisture recycling systems (Beveridge 2024, Weng et al. 2018, Staal 2018, Weng 2019). Evaporation recycling reloads atmospheric moisture after rainfall, while precipitation recycling removes this moisture. The Amazon forest is therefore a key component of a giant water pump, starting with water transported from the tropical Atlantic Ocean and helping push it westward (Zemp 2017, Boers 2017). Aerial rivers are the long-term and large-scale preferential pathways of the moisture flows driving this pump (Arraut et al. 2012) (see Intro Image). Thus, aerial rivers are the overall average (coarse-scale) moisture flow pattern, while moisture recycling focuses more on the seasonal differences (finer-scale).

Of all the rainfall in the Amazon, its trees have directly transpired 20% of it (Staal et al. 2018). Half of this precipitation (10%) is from moisture from one recycling event, and the other half (10%) is from multiple recycling events. This latter process of cascading precipitation, or cascading moisture recycling (Zemp et al. 2014), may happen multiple times (up to five or six), recycling water from the eastern to western Amazon, to areas increasingly distant from the Atlantic Ocean source (Lovejoy and Nobre 2019, Beveridge et al, 2024). Precipitation tends to increase exponentially as moist air travels over forests, but then drops off sharply once it moves beyond them, showing just how vital forests are in sustaining rainfall across large regions (Molina et al. 2019). Transpiration-driven moisture recycling is especially important during the dry season (Staal et al. 2018, Nehemy et al. 2025).

Thus, there are transboundary implications, as actions occurring in an eastern country can have an impact on a western country downwind of the moisture cascade. For example, deforestation in eastern Brazil can negatively impact moisture flow going to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, including the tropical Andean mountains (Ruiz-Vasquez et al., 2020; Sierra et al. 2022, Flores et al 2024). As moisture recycling also continues beyond the boundaries of the Amazon, there may also be impacts to agricultural areas in southern Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina, and northern Colombia (Martinez and Dominguez 2014; Ruiz-Vasquez et al., 2020).

The resulting terrestrial flow of water from the Andes mountains through the Amazon lowlands and back to the Atlantic Ocean as runoff and flow of the Amazon river and its tributaries results in the emerging concept known as the “Andes–Amazon– Atlantic” (AAA) pathway (Beveridge et al, 2024).

Importantly, the moisture flows change seasonally in the Amazon. Figure 1 illustrates these seasonal changes for the southwest Amazon, as an example.

In the rainy season (January–February), the moisture flow is both westward and southward, creating a giant arc (Arraut 2012). Thus, the continental moisture source is the northeast Amazon (Boers 2017, Weng et al. 2018, Sierra et al. 2022).

In the dry (July–August) and the dry-to-wet transition (September-October) seasons, the moisture flow shifts more directly westward (Arraut 2012, Staal et al, 2018). Therefore, the continental moisture source is the southeast Amazon, and some studies have identified this region as the most important for maintaining overall Amazonian resilience (Zemp et al. 2017, Staal et al. 2018).

There is increasing evidence that future deforestation will reduce rainfall downwind – further west – of the moisture recycling networks, inducing a “tipping point” of impacted regions that would transition from rainforest to savannah ecosystems (Boers 2017, Staal 2018, Lovejoy & Nobre 2018). This has led to calls for forest protection strategies to maintain the cascading moisture recycling system fueling the pathway (Zemp 2017, Encalada et al. 2021). A recent review indicates limited evidence for a single, system-wide tipping point; instead, specific areas of the Amazon may be more vulnerable (Brando et al, 2025).

Scientists are already documenting impacts linked to increasing forest loss. Several recent studies have found that Amazon deforestation has already caused a significant decrease in precipitation in the southeast Amazon, particularly during the dry season (Qin et al, 2025, Liu et al, 2025, Franco et al. 2025). Moreover, deforestation reduces rainfall upwind of the cleared areas, impacting the western Amazon as well (Qin et al, 2025). In addition, recent studies have shown that Amazon deforestation delays the onset of the wet season in southern Amazonia (Ruiz-Vasquez et al., 2020; Commar et al., 2023; Sierra et al., 2023).

Related to deforestation, additional climatic factors, such as increased temperature and the length of the dry season, are also contributing to the tipping point (Flores et al. 2024). Multiple sources have reported on the lengthening of the dry season in southern and eastern Amazonia in recent decades, with the largest dry season observed in 2023-2024 during the major drought reported in Amazonia (Marengo el al 2024; Espinoza et al., 2024). As a result of these drier conditions, recent years have experienced record-breaking fire seasons, most notably during the El Niño years of 2016 and 2024 (Finer et al 2025). Notably, the predicted forest-to-savannah change is already happening in places experiencing increased wildfire frequency due to these hot and dry conditions (Flores et al. 2021).

2. Areas most dependent on moisture recycling in the Amazon (sensitive areas)

Figure 2. Merged sensitive areas. Data: Staal 2018, Weng 2018, Amazon Conservation/MAAP

A series of recent empirical and modeling studies indicate that the southwest Amazon (including the Peruvian and Bolivian ranges of the tropical Andes) is the major moisture sink – the area where precipitation is most dependent on moisture recycling (Boers et al. 2017, Zemp et al. 2017, Weng et al. 2018, Staal et al. 2018, Sierra et al. 2022). In fact, tree-transpired rainfall is greater than 70% in this region (Staal et al. 2018, Weng et al. 2018).

Given its dependence on transpiration-driven precipitation, the impact of a reduction in rainfall from cascading moisture recycling is predicted to be greatest in the southwest Amazon (Zemp et al. 2017, Weng et al. 2018, Staal 2018, Sierra et al. 2022, Beveridge 2024). Indeed, the southwest Amazon forest may enter the bioclimatic equilibrium of savannas following projected extensive Amazon deforestation scenarios (Zemp, 2017). Forests in the northwest and Guyana Shield are also relatively dependent on forest-rainfall cascades (Hoyos et al 2018; Staal et al. 2018).

To precisely identify the most vulnerable areas in the Amazon to disruptions of transpiration-based moisture recycling in a spatially explicit manner, we merged two key studies featuring spatially explicit model outputs (Weng 2018, Staal 2018). These studies cover data for the dry season (Staal 2018) and yearly (both dry and wet seasons) (Weng 2018).

Weng 2018 identifies “sensitive areas,” defined as areas having more than 50% of rainfall coming from Amazonian evapotranspiration (representing the 98th percentile of the highest sensitivity to Amazonian land use change). Staal 2018 estimates the effect of Amazon tree transpiration on Amazon forest resilience. We selected the areas with the highest resilience loss (0.8 and higher), quantified as the fraction of resilience that would be lost in the absence of tree transpiration by Amazonian trees.

Figure 2 illustrates the merged dataset, which we refer to as “merged sensitive areas.” Notably, both studies concur that the most vulnerable areas are located in the southwest Amazon, spanning the lowlands of only two of the nine countries of the Amazon Basin: Peru and Bolivia. This merged sensitive area covers a 1,750-kilometer-long swath along the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes. In this merged data map, we include Manu National Park as a reference point, located roughly in the middle of the sensitive areas.

Weng et al. identified higher elevation areas of the Andean-Amazon transition area in both Peru (Junín, Cusco, and Puno regions) and Bolivia, while Staal et al (2018) identified slightly lower elevation areas in this same range. These regions are consistent with predicted areas of higher rainfall reduction due to deforestation (Sierra et al. 2022). Also, note that Staal indicates an additional area in the Venezuelan Amazon.

Although, as noted above, forests in the northwest and northeast (Guyana Shield) are also relatively dependent on forest-rainfall cascades, the forests of the southwest are the most dependent, likely given their location at the far end of the Atlantic-Amazon-Andes pathway.

3. Moisture flows to sensitive areas (by season)

Figure 3. Amazon moisture flows by season relative to sensitive areas in the southwest Amazon. Data: ERA5, ACA/MAAP

Given the reliance of western, especially southwest, Amazon forests on cascading moisture recycling, a key challenge is to identify the most important moisture source areas in the eastern Amazon. In this respect, the literature provides a less definitive answer, likely because the moisture recycling routes change with seasons, in contrast to the long-term path of the aerial rivers that represent overall preferential pathways (Arraut 2012, Staal 2018, Weng et al. 2018).

We correlate the merged sensitive areas in the southwest Amazon with their respective moisture source areas by back-tracking the moisture flows upwind. This component of the work was inspired by the precipitation-shed concept, defined here as the terrestrial upwind surface areas providing evapotranspiration to a specific area’s precipitation (Keys et al. 2012, Weng et al. 2018).

We determined that analyzing all three major seasons is essential because of the major seasonal variability (Staal et al, 2018) and that each plays a key role in the stability of the rainforests: During the wet season, nearly 50% of total annual precipitation falls over the region, and these wet periods recharge Amazonian groundwater reserves vital for sustaining forest transpiration rates during dry months (Miguez-Macho and Fan 2012, Sierra et al 2022). During the dry season, moisture recycling processes are particularly important to ensure that some of the limited precipitation reaches the western Amazon (Beveridge et al, 2024). Tree-transpired rainfall then peaks during September to November, when large parts of the Amazon are at the end of the dry season and transitioning to the wet season (Zanin et al., 2024).

To map the pathway of moisture flow between the western Amazon merged sensitive areas and their eastern moisture sources, we utilize moisture flow data from the ERA5 reanalysis (Hersbach 2023). Specifically, we merged vertically integrated data for both northward and eastward water vapour flux. We chose data from 2022 as a recent year not heavily influenced by extreme weather events such as El Niño or drought (Espinoza et al., 2024). For 2022, we downloaded and analyzed the moisture flow data for three separate time periods: January-February (representing the wet or monsoon season), July-August (dry season), and September-October (dry-to-wet transition season).

The results for all three seasons are illustrated in Figure 3, where the arrows represent the ERA5 reanalysis moisture flow data from the Atlantic Ocean to the merged sensitive areas in the southwest Amazon.

Note that in the wet season (January-February), moisture flows from the Atlantic Ocean over the northeast Amazon (northern Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, and Venezuela) before taking a major southern turn (arc) through the southeast Colombian Amazon and northern Peru before reaching the Sensitive Areas. This general pattern is consistent with other studies focused on the wet season (Arraut 2012, Boers 2017, Sierra et al. 2022) and year-round (Weng et al. 2018).

In contrast, in the dry (July-August) and transition (September-October) seasons, the moisture flows from the Atlantic Ocean further south across the central Brazilian Amazon, and has a less pronounced arc near the border with Peru. Specifically, the dry season pattern is consistent with other studies focused on the dry season (Arraut 2012, Staal 2018, Zemp 2017 NC). Note that the transition season flow is located between the wet season to the north and the dry season to the south.

For all three seasons, we emphasize that the entire trajectory from east to west is important for conservation regarding cascading moisture recycling. That is, the farthest away areas in the east represent the full cascading trajectory, while the closest areas in the west exert the strongest direct influence (Weng et al. 2018).

While moisture recycling covers a vast area from east to west, much of the tree-induced rainfall in the southwest Amazon is transpired nearby (Stall 2018). That is, areas exerting the strongest and most efficient influence on the southwest Amazon are located just upwind, in the central-west Amazon (Weng 2018; Wongchuig et al., 2023). In sum, extensive forest loss anywhere along the cascading moisture pathway from the eastern to the western Amazon, far or near, may affect transpiration-based precipitation in the western Amazon, adding to its sensitivity.

The overall annual pattern, accounting for all three seasons, could then be described as aerial rivers. As indicated by Weng et al. (2018), this mostly matches the pattern of the wet season.

Figure 4. As in Figure 3, plus forest cover. Data: ERA5, Amazon Conservation/MAAP

For additional context, Figure 4 incorporates current land classification broken down into three major categories based on satellite imagery analysis: Forest, Non-forest (such as savannah), and accumulated Deforestation areas (as of 2022).

For January-February (wet season), note that much of the moisture flow crosses the continuous primary forest of the northern Amazon. That is, the moisture crosses predominantly non-deforested areas of northern Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, southeast Colombia, and northern Peru.

In contrast, the moisture flows for July-August (dry season) and September-October (transition season) cross several major deforestation fronts in the central Amazon, particularly during the dry season.

During the critical dry-to-wet transition season, the role of the local area’s tree evapotranspiration is especially important. The southern Amazon presents lower overall evapotranspiration values (Fassoni-Andrade 2021; Zanin et al., 2024). Due to the greater access of forest roots to deep soil water, however, evapotranspiration over forested areas is higher than croplands/grasslands during this time (von Randow et al. 2004). Since, during this transition season, the moisture transport to the southwestern Amazon passes over large deforested areas, the conservation of the remaining forest along this pathway is critical.

In addition, recent studies show that the main patterns of moisture flux can be altered at a continental scale due to deforestation (Commar et al., 2023; Sierra et al., 2023). As a result, reduced moisture transport from the Atlantic to the continent and delays in the onset of the wet season may occur in the future due to Amazon deforestation and climate change (Agudelo et al., 2023).

Conclusion

Above, in this initial technical report, we merged three key points that are critical to understanding the tipping point concept in the Amazon.

First, we presented an overview of aerial moisture flows originating from the Atlantic Ocean and then moving and recycling from the eastern to the western Amazon. Second, we identified the “sensitive areas” that are the most vulnerable to deforestation-caused disruption of moisture recycling, mostly located in the western Amazon (Peru and Bolivia). Third, we relate these sensitive areas in the west to their respective eastern key source areas for moisture for each of the three Amazonian seasons: wet, dry, and transition.

Incorporating updated land-use data, we found important differences by season. For the wet season, much of the moisture flow crosses the continuous primary (non-deforested) forests of the northern Amazon. For the dry and transition seasons, however, the moisture flow must cross several major deforestation fronts mainly located in the central Amazon.

We will soon build off of these results in an upcoming policy-focused report that presents the major implications of the maintenance of aerial moisture flows for conservation. This analysis will include how to identify key conservation areas for each season based on the key concept of maintaining cascading moisture flow to the sensitive areas, in relation to protected areas, Indigenous territories, and major road networks. It will also reveal several policy implications that require urgent attention and new approaches to national governance and international cooperation. For example, It considers the implications of planned roads (most notably BR-319) and fortifying existing conservation areas and creating new ones in undesignated public lands.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Leo Model Foundation.

We thank the following colleagues for datasets and/or comments on earlier versions of the report:

Wei Weng
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research
Potsdam, Germany

Arie Staal
Assistant Professor
Environmental Sciences
Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development
Utrecht University

Juan Pablo Sierra
Institut des Géosciences de l’Environnement,
Université Grenoble Alpes, IRD, CNRS,
Grenoble, France

Jhan-Carlo Espinoza
Directeur de Recherche, Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement (IRD)
IGE Univ. Grenoble Alpes, IRD, CNRS (UMR 5001 / UR 252) – France
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Lima – Peru
Co-chair of ANDEX: A regional Hydroclimate Initiative for the Andes – GEWEX
Coordinator of the AMANECER Project (Amazon-Andes Connectivity)

Clara Zemp
University of Neuchâtel

Corine Vriesendorp
Director of Science
Conservación Amazónica – Peru (ACCA)

Federico E. Viscarra
Science Officer
Science Panel for the Amazon

Daniel Larrea
Director of the Science & Technology Program
Conservación Amazónica – Bolivia (ACEAA)

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A, Sierra JP, Espinoza JC,, Weng W, Vriesendorp C, Bodin B, Beavers J (2025) The Amazon Tipping Point – Importance of Flying Rivers Connecting the Amazon. MAAP: 232.

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Protected: MAAP #242 Illegal gold mining in Yanomami Indigenous Territory (northern Brazilian Amazon)

Annual Mining Deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve

Base Map & Case Studies

Case Study A. Sector Isla Córdoba

Case Study B. Sector A4

Caso Study C. Sector A7

Case Study D. Sector Isla Correntada

Public Policies Addressing Illegal Mining in the Tambopata National Reserve

1. State Response: Operations and Interdiction

4. Legislative Threats to Protected Natural Areas

Methodology

References

Acknowledgments

Mining in Protected Areas

Altamira National Forest

Terra do Meio Ecological Station

Cachimbo Mountain Headwaters Biological Reserve

Notes

Acknowledgments

Mining in Indigenous Territories

Kuruaya Indigenous Territory

Baú Indigenous Territory

Kayapó Indigenous Territory

Conclusion and Recommendations

*Notes

Acknowledgments

Case Studies

Mining Activity in Morona Santiago (2020-2024)

Case 1. Santiago River

Case 2. Nayap

Case 3. Taisha

Policy recommendations

1. Strengthening Indigenous governance

2. Biocultural territorial planning

3. Controlling road expansion in Indigenous territories

Notes

Annex

Citation

Acknowledgments

Amazon Mining Watch

Brownsberg Nature Park

Brinckheuvel Nature Reserve

Policy Implications

Acknowledgments

FIRST QUARTERLY UPDATE REPORT: MINING EXPANSION ACROSS THE AMAZON

CASES OF RECENT GOLD MINING DEFORESTATION ACROSS THE AMAZON

B. Northern Ecuador

C. San José de Karene Indigenous Territory, Peru

D. Pemon Indigenous Territory, Venezuela

Brazil

Suriname

Guyana

Annex

Notes/Methodology

Acknowledgments

Gold Mining Deforestation in Yapacana National Park, 2020-2025

Recent Gold Mining Deforestation Events, 2024-2025

Illegal gold mining on top of the Yapacana Tepui

Illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park

Policy Implications:

Biodiversity impacts:

Acknowledgements

Northern Peru

Central Peru

Southern Peru

Policy recommendations for gold mining in Peru:

1. Implement an effective gold traceability system that links production, marketing, and export

2. Strengthening the Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) Law & improving the formalizatin registry (REINFO)

3. Establish environmental obligations from the beginning of mining formalization & ensure their supervision

4. Strengthen ASM supervision at the regional level through inter-institutional agreements

5. Promote clean technologies and ban the use of mercury by 2030.

Methodology

References

Citation

Acknowledgments

1. Movement of aerial moisture across the Amazon (moisture flow)

2. Areas most dependent on moisture recycling in the Amazon (sensitive areas)

3. Moisture flows to sensitive areas (by season)

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Case 3.  Taisha 