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MAAP #188: Mennonite Colonies Continue Major Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon

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Base Map. Mennonite Colonies in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACA/MAAP, SERNANP.

Starting in 2017, new Mennonite colonies began appearing in the Peruvian Amazon, coming from other parts of Latin America in search of new lands.

TheMennonites, a global religious group dating back to the 1600s, often require vast tracts of land to support their characteristic large-scale, industrialized agricultural activity.

In a series of reports, we have demonstrated that the Mennonites have become one of the major deforestation drivers in both the Peruvian and Bolivian Amazon.

Here, we update our findings for Peru for the most recent time period, January 2022 – August 2023.

Our objective is to provide detailed information on the magnitude of deforestation caused by the Menonites in Peru, and to identify the specific colonies where this forest loss is most active now.

Major Findings:

Our analysis has revealed that the Mennonites have now deforested over 7 thousand hectares (7,032 hectares, or 17,376 acres) in the five colonies established since 2017 (Vanderland, Osterreich, Providencia, Chipiar, and Masisea; see Base Map). In addition, we have documented an additional impact of more than 1,600 hectares of burned forests.

Of the total deforestation, more than a third (34.5%) has occurred in the most recent period, from January 2022 to the current date in August 2023 (2,426 hectares, or 5,995 acres).

Below, we detail the deforestation history in each colony, with an emphasis on the most recent loss.

In addition, there is mounting evidence that this massive deforestation is illegal, with numerous ongoing investigations by the Peruvian government (see the Legal Summary, below).

Deforestation in Mennonite Colonies (Peruvian Amazon)

Chipiar Colony

Figure 1. Deforestation in the Chipiar Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

This colony is located on both sides of the border between the departments of Ucayali and Loreto, originating in the district of Padre Marquez on the Loreto side.

It is the newest colony, where deforestation began in 2020. This deforestation escalated in 2021, peaked in 2022, and continues to expand in 2023.

In total, we document the deforestation of 2,221 hectares in the Chipiar colony since 2020 (see image below).

Much of this loss (76%) occurred in the most recent 2022 – 2023 period.

In addition, we estimate the additional degradation of 1,600 hectares by fires that have escaped from the Mennonite plantations into the surrounding forests.

 

Figure 2. Recent image of deforestation in the Chipiar Mennonite colony. Data: Planet.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vanderland, Osterreich & Providencia Colonies

Figure 3. Deforestation in the Mennonite colonies of Tierra Blanca (Vanderland, Österreich and Providencia). Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

These three colonies are located near the town of Tierra Blanca, in the Loreto region.

In total, we have documented the deforestation of 3,881 hectares since 2017, with 32.5% occurring in the most recent 2022 – 2023 period (see image below).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Masisea Colony

This colony, located in the Ucayali region, was the first to be established in Peru and was occupied with colonists arriving from Bolivia.

In total, we document the deforestation of 929 hectares in the Masisea colony since 2017 (see image below). Deforestation was highest between 2017 and 2019, and just 6% occurred in the most recent 2022 – 2023 time period.

Figure 4. Recent image of deforestation in the Vanderland, Österreich and Providencia Mennonite colonies. Data: Planet.
Figure 5. Deforestation in the Masisea Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Legal Summary

Figura 6. Imagen reciente de la deforestación en la colonia menonita Masisea. Datos: Planet.

The Specialized Environmental Prosecutor’s Office, known as FEMA (Fiscalia Especializada en Materia Ambiental), is conducting investigations against the Mennonite colonies in each of the three areas:

  • In Masisea, which is the most advanced case, the accusation is for illegal trafficking of timber forest products, crimes against forests in an aggravated form, alteration of the environment or landscape, and crimes against the forests of an indigenous community (tráfico ilegal de productos forestales maderables, delitos contra los bosques en forma agravada y alteración del ambiente o paisaje, y delitos contra los bosques de una comunidad nativa).
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  • In the colonies of Tierra Blanca, the accusations include crimes against forests or wooded areas and misuse of agricultural lands (delitos contra los bosques o formaciones boscosas y por utilización indebida de tierras agrícolas).
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  • In Chipiar, officially known as the Christian Agricultural Mennonite Colony Gnadenhoff Reinlaender Benboya, the accusation is crime against forests or forest formations in aggravated form (delito contra los bosques o formaciones boscosas en forma agravada).

The Public Prosecutor of the Ministry of the Environment has indicated that all deforestation has occurred without the proper authorization from the relevant state agencies. The regional governments of Ucayali and Loreto have confirmed this assertion, stating that there is no authorization for land use change.

In addition, the National Forest Service (SERFOR) has received five complaints against the Mennonite colonies in the three sectors (two for Masisea, two for Tierra Blanca, and one for Chipiar). These complaints have been forwarded to the respective regional governments and to FEMA in Loreto and Ucayali.

In general, the Mennonites have followed the same pattern in each area: First, there is an irregular purchase of land. Then, they proceed with land use change and deforestation without proper authorization.

In October 2022, the Ucayali Transitory Preparatory Investigation Court for Environmental Crimes (Juzgado de Investigación Preparatoria Transitorio de Delitos Ambientales de Ucayali) ruled in favor of the request of the Attorney General of the Ministry of the Environment, in relation to deforestation in the Chipiar colony. In July 2023, the Second Criminal Appeals Chamber of the Superior Court of Justice of Ucayali (Segunda Sala Penal de Apelaciones de la Corte Superior de Justicia de Ucayali) ratified the immediate suspension of predatory activities of clearing and logging by the colony. According to the judicial order, the members of this Mennonite colony will not be able to use vehicles, machinery or instruments that cause deforestation.

Sources:

Mongabay Latam

https://es.mongabay.com/2022/10/tiruntan-perdio-sus-bosques-tras-la-llegada-de-menonitas-en-peru/

https://es.mongabay.com/2022/02/menonitas-en-peru-tres-colonias-investigadas-por-la-deforestacion-de-casi-4-mil-hectareas-de-bosque-en-la-amazonia/

https://es.mongabay.com/2020/11/menonitas-peru-deforestacion-loreto/

https://es.mongabay.com/2021/04/menonitas-peru-historia-entrega-bosques-masisea/

Ojo Publico

https://ojo-publico.com/ambiente/territorio-amazonas/las-visitas-al-congreso-detras-del-proyecto-que-amenaza-los-bosques

Convoca

https://convoca.pe/investigacion/menonitas-el-grupo-que-convierte-la-fe-religiosa-en-deforestacion-en-la-amazonia-del

https://convoca.pe/investigacion/brechas-legales-permiten-que-los-menonitas-deforesten-la-amazonia-peruana

Actualidad Ambiental

https://www.actualidadambiental.pe/ordena-suspender-depredacion-de-bosques-a-colonia-menonita/

Acknowledgements

We thank colleagues at USAID in Peru and Conservación Amazónica-ACCA for helpful input and comments on this report, and R. McMullen for translation.

This report was prepared with the technical support of USAID through the Prevent Project. Prevent (Proyecto Prevenir in Spanish) works with the Government of Peru, civil society, and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali.

Disclaimer: This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through USAID. The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2023) Mennonite Colonies Continue Major Deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 188.

MAAP #189: Amazon Fire Season Heats Up

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Image 1. Example of 2023 (June 29) major fire in Brazilian Amazon.

The Amazon fire season is well under way: to date, we have detected over 260 major fires thus far in 2023 (see Base Map below).

This year is of special concern because scientists indicate we have entered a new El Niño episode. The most intense Amazon fire seasons on record, 2016 and 2017, immediately followed the last major El Niño event.

Most of the fires (54%) this year have occurred in the Brazilian Amazon.

Of these, the vast majority (73%) have burned r­­­­ecently deforested areas. This high number is consistent with previous years (see MAAP #168) and once again highlights the critical link between deforestation and fires in the Brazilian Amazon. That is, most major fires are burning the remnants of a recent deforestation event.

It is also worth noting that many of the fires in the Brazilian Amazon (42%) were burning areas recently deforested specifically for new soy plantations.

We have thus far detected 40 major fires in the Bolivian Amazon. The vast majority (88%) have been burning areas recently deforested specifically for new soy plantations.

We have detected an additional 30 major fires in the Peruvian Amazon, mostly burning high elevation grasslands.

Earlier in the year, between January and March, we detected 50 major fires in the Colombian Amazon. Notably, 100% of them were in burning recently deforested areas.

These findings are based on the unique data from the real-time Amazon Fires Monitoring app developed by our partner organization in Peru, Conservación Amazónica ACCA. In a novel approach, the app combines data from the atmosphere (aerosol emissions in smoke) and the ground (heat anomaly alerts) to quickly and precisely detect major fires, defined as fires burning abundant biomass. In short, the app filters out smaller fires (such as routine burning an old field) and highlights major fires (such as burning recently deforested areas, standing forest, or natural grasslands).

2023 Major Amazon Fires Base Map

Base Map. 2023 major Amazon fires (through July 2023). Data: ACCA, ACA/MAAP.

Amazon Fires Dashboard

We also present our new Amazon fires dashboard, which currently shows results for the 2022 fire season. The dashboard highlights a number of the key findings from last year:

  • We detected 983 major fires.
  • The vast majority (72%) were in Brazil, followed by Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia.
  • Importantly, 73% of the major fires burned recently deforested areas, followed by grasslands, forest fires, and pasture.

The dashboard was developed by the SAS Institute’s Data for Good Program.

Methodology

The reported results are based on an analysis of data generated by a unique real-time Amazon Fires Monitoring app during the year 2023, through July 13.

The app, hosted by Google Earth Engine, was developed and updated daily by the Peru-based organization Conservación Amazónica (ACCA). The resulting data was analyzed and recorded daily by the US-based organization Amazon Conservation. The app was created in 2019 and upgraded in 2020, with the current version launching in May 2021.

When fires burn, they emit gases and aerosols (aerosol definition: Suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas) as part of the outgoing smoke. A relatively new satellite (Sentinel-5P from the European Space Agency) detects these aerosol emissions.

The aerosol data, which has a spatial resolution of 7.5 sq km, is not impacted by cloud cover, thus enabling near real-time monitoring during all weather conditions. The app is typically updated each day in the late afternoon/early evening with data for that same day. Thus, there is a high potential for authorities and civil society to also use this app to respond to major fires in the field.

Importantly, the app distinguishes small fires (such as from clearing old fields and thus burning little biomass) from larger fires (such as burning recently deforested areas or standing forests and thus burning high amounts of biomass).

We define a “major fire” as one showing elevated aerosol emission levels on the app, thus indicating the burning of elevated levels of biomass. This typically translates to an aerosol index (AI) of >1 (or cyan-green to red on the app).

In a novel approach, the app combines this aerosol data from the atmosphere with heat anomaly data from the ground.

For all detected major fires, we cross-referenced the aerosol emissions pattern with the ground heat-based data to pinpoint the exact location of the fire source. Typically for major fires, there is a large cluster of heat-anomaly alerts aiding the process.

In a final step, the detected major fires are then analyzed with high-resolution optical satellite imagery from Planet Explorer. With this imagery, we can confirm the major fire (by observing smoke on the day of the fire or a burned area scar in the days following the fire) and estimate its size.

Moreover, with Planet’s extensive satellite imagery archive, we can determine the fire type. That is, by comparing imagery from the fire date to previous dates, we can determine whether the fire was burning a) a recently deforested area (defined as fires in areas recently deforested during the past three years), b) an older deforested area (typically long-standing pasture areas), c) standing forest (that is, a forest fire), or natural savannah.

In the app, we can also cross-reference if a major fire has occurred within a protected area or titled indigenous territory.

Note that the high values in the aerosol indices may also be due to other reasons such as emissions of volcanic ash or desert dust so it is important to cross-reference elevated emissions with heat data and optical imagery.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation) and ICFC (International Conservation Fund of Canada).

Citation

Finer M, Costa H, Villa L (2023) Amazon Fire Season Heats Up. MAAP: 189.

MAAP #187: Amazon Deforestation & Fire Hotspots 2022

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2022 Amazon Forest Loss Base Map. Deforestation and fire hotspots across the full Amazon biome. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

We present a detailed look at the major 2022 Amazon forest loss hotspots, based on the final annual data recently released by the University of Maryland (and featured on Global Forest Watch).

This dataset is unique in that it is consistent across all nine countries of the Amazon, and distinguishes forest loss from fire, leaving the rest as a proxy for deforestation (but also includes natural loss).

Thus, we are able to present both deforestation and fire hotspots across the Amazon.

The Base Map (see right) and Results Graph (see below) reveal several key findings:

  • In 2022, we estimate the deforestation of 1.98 million hectares (4.89 million acres). This represents a major 21% increase from 2021, and is the second highest on record, behind only the peak in 2004.
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  • Deforestation hotspots were especially concentrated along roads in the Brazilian Amazon, the soy frontier in the southeast Bolivian Amazon, and near protected areas in northwest Colombian Amazon.
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  • The vast majority of the deforestation occurred in Brazil (72.8%), followed by Bolivia (12.4%), Peru (7.3%), and Colombia (4.9%). Note that deforestation in Bolivia was the highest on record, and in Brazil the highest since the early 2000s.
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  • Fires impacted an additional 491,223 hectares (1.2 million acres) of primary forest. This total represents a 1.6% increase from 2021, and the 4th highest on record (behind only intense fire seasons of 2016, 2017, and 2020). Moreover, each of the seven most intense fire seasons has occurred in the past seven years. Nearly 93% of the fire impact occurred in just two countries: Brazil and Bolivia.
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  • In total, 2.47 million hectares (6.1 million acres) of primary forest were impacted by deforestation and fire. This total represents the third highest on record, only behind the post-El Niño years of 2016 and 2017.
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  • Since 2002, we estimate the deforestation of 30.7 million hectares (75.9 million acres) of primary forest, greater than the size of Italy or the U.S. state of Arizona.

Below, we zoom in on the six countries with the highest deforestation (Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) with additional maps and analysis.

Amazon Primary Forest Loss (Combined), 2002-2022

Amazon Forest Loss Results Graph, 2002-22. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

Amazon Primary Forest Loss (By Country), 2002-2022

Brazilian Amazon

Brazil Base Map, 2022. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Brazilian Amazon in relation to major roads. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

In 2022, the Brazilian Amazon lost 1.4 million hectares (3.56 million acres) of primary forest to deforestation. Fires directly impacted an additional 348,824 hectares.

The deforestation rose 20.5% from 2021, and was the highest on record since the peak years of 2002 – 2005.

The fire impact was the 4th highest on record, only behind the intense fire years of 2016, 2017, and 2020.

The deforestation was concentrated along the major road networks, especially roads 230 (Trans-Amazonian Highway), 364, 319, and 163 in the states of Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, and Acre (see Brazil Base Map).

The direct fire impacts were concentrated in the soy frontier, located in southeastern state of Mato Grosso

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bolivian Amazon

Bolivia Base Map, 2022. Deforestation and fire hotspots in Bolivian Amazon. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

In 2022, the Bolivian Amazon lost 245,177 hectares of primary forest to deforestation. Fires directly impacted an additional 106,922 hectares.

We highlight that this deforestation was 47% higher than 2021, and the highest on record (by far).

The fire impact was also up from last year, and the second-highest on record behind just the intense year of 2020.

Both the deforestation and fires were concentrated in the soy frontier located in southeastern department of Santa Cruz (see Bolivia Base Map).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Peruvian Amazon

Peru Base Map, 2022. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

In 2022, the Peruvian Amazon lost 144,682 hectares of primary forest to deforestation. Fires directly impacted an additional 16,408 hectares.

Deforestation increased 6.7% from 2021, and was the 5th highest on record. Fire impact decreased from last year, but was still relatively high.

The deforestation was concentrated in the central and southern Amazon (Ucayali and Madre de Dios regions, respectively) (see Peru Base Map).

In the central Amazon, we highlight the rapid deforestation for a new Mennonite colony (see MAAP #166).

In the southern Amazon, gold mining deforestation continues to be an issue in indigenous communities and within the official Mining Corridor.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Colombian Amazon

Colombia Base Map, 2022. Deforestation and fire hotspots in northwest Colombian Amazon. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP, FCDS.

In 2022, the Colombian Amazon lost 97,417 hectares of primary forest to deforestation. Fires directly impacted an additional 12,880 hectares.

Deforestation decreased 2% from 2021, but it was still relatively high (5th highest on record), continuing the trend of elevated forest loss since the FARC peace agreement in 2016.

Fire impact increased from last year and was actually the highest on record, edging out 2018 and 2019.

As described in previous reports (see MAAP #120), the Colombia Base Map shows there continues to be an “arc of deforestation” in the northwest Colombian Amazon (Caqueta, Meta, and Guaviare departments).

This arc impacts numerous Protected Areas (particularly Tinigua and Chiribiquete National Parks) and Indigenous Reserves (particularly Yari-Yaguara II and Nukak Maku).

 

 

 

 

Ecuadorian Amazon

Ecuador Base Map, 2022. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

Although accounting for just 1% of total loss across the Amazon, deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon was the highest on record in 2022 (18,902 hectares), up a striking 80% since 2021.

There are several deforestation hotspots caused by gold mining (see MAAP #182), oil palm plantation expansion, and small-scale agriculture.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Venezuelan Amazon

In the Venezuelan Amazon, deforestation was on par with last year (12,584 hectares).

There is a deforestation hotspot caused by gold mining in Yapacana National Park (see MAAP #173, MAAP #156, MAAP #169).

There are also hotspots in the Orinoco Mining Arc caused by mining and agriculture.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Methodology

The analysis was based on 30-meter resolution annual forest loss data produced by the University of Maryland and also presented by Global Forest Watch.

This data was complemented with the Global Forest Loss due to fire dataset that is unique in terms of being consistent across the Amazon (in contrast to country specific estimates) and distinguishes forest loss caused directly by fire (note that virtually all Amazon fires are human-caused). The values included were ‘medium’ and ‘high’ confidence levels (code 3-4).

The remaining forest loss serves as a likely close proxy for deforestation, with the only remaining exception being natural events such as landslides, wind storms, and meandering rivers. The values used to estimate this category was ‘low’ certainty of forest loss due to fire (code 2), and forest loss due to other ‘non-fire’ drivers (code 1).

For the baseline, it was defined to establish areas with >30% tree canopy density in 2000. Importantly, we applied a filter to calculate only primary forest loss by intersecting the forest cover loss data with the additional dataset “primary humid tropical forests” as of 2001 (Turubanova et al 2018). For more details on this part of the methodology, see the Technical Blog from Global Forest Watch (Goldman and Weisse 2019).

Our geographic range for the Amazon is a hybrid designed for maximum inclusion: biogeographic boundary (as defined by RAISG) for all countries, except for Bolivia and Peru, where we use the watershed boundary, and Brazil, where we use the Legal Amazon boundary.

To identify the deforestation hotspots, we conducted a kernel density estimate. This type of analysis calculates the magnitude per unit area of a particular phenomenon, in this case, forest cover loss. We conducted this analysis using the Kernel Density tool from the Spatial Analyst Tool Box of ArcGIS. We used the following parameters:

Search Radius: 15000 layer units (meters)
Kernel Density Function: Quartic kernel function
Cell Size in the map: 200 x 200 meters (4 hectares)
Everything else was left to the default setting.

For the Base Map, we used the following concentration percentages: High: 3-14%; Very High: >14%.

Acknowledgements

We thank colleagues at Global Forest Watch (GFW), an initiative of the World Resources Institute (WRI) for comments and access to data.

This work was supported by Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation) and ICFC (International Conservation Fund of Canada).

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2023) Amazon Deforestation & Fire Hotspots 2022. MAAP: 187

MAAP #185: Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon: 2021-2022 Update

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Base Map. Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon, 2021-2022 update. Zooms indicated by insets A-F. Click on image to enlarge. Data: ACA/MAAP, CINCIA.

Gold mining continues to be one of the main causes of deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon, especially in the Madre de Dios region.

Here, we provide a comprehensive look at the most recent (2021-2022) gold mining-related deforestation in the area, combining two important types of data for the first time:

  1. Deforestation within the Mining Corridor, a large area delimited by the Peruvian government to organize and promote mining. Mining activity in this corridor, officially known as the “Small-scale and Artisanal Mining Zone in the department of Madre de Dios,” can be formal, informal, or illegal.1
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  2. Deforestation outside the Mining Corridor, which represents our estimate of illegal mining. According to current regulations (Legislative Decree No. 1336), illegal mining occurs in one or more territorial categories such as protected natural areas, indigenous reserves, and natural bodies of water (such as lakes or rivers). Therefore, for this report, the presence of mining-related deforestation in protected natural areas and their buffer zones, as well as indigenous communities, is considered an indicator of illegality. However, it is important to recognize the possibility that some of these findings may be covered by current regulations regarding mining formalization.2 Therefore, it is recommended to consider the findings of illegal deforestation as referential.

These two study areas cover a total of 1.38 million hectares and include all detected mining areas in the southern Peruvian Amazon.

We highlight several important findings (see Base Map and Table 1):

  • Table 1. Data: ACA/MAAP.

    We estimate a total deforestation of 18,421 hectares (45,520 acres) due to gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon in the last two years (2021-2022).
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  • Of this total, the majority of mining-related deforestation (76.6%, or 14,117 hectares) occurred within the Mining Corridor.
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  • The remaining deforestation (23.4%, or 4,304 hectares) took place outside the Mining Corridor. Breaking down this percentage, 15% is found in indigenous communities, 4.8% in buffer zones of protected natural areas, 0.8% in forest concessions, and 2.8% in non-zoned areas.
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  • Furthermore, we found that mining within protected natural areas, such as the Tambopata National Reserve and the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, has been effectively controlled by the Peruvian government through the National Service of Protected Natural Areas (SERNANP).
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  • It is important to highlight that mining has stopped in the core of La Pampa (the most critical zone during the years 2014-2018) following Operation Mercury in early 2019 and the subsequent Restoration Plan in 2021.
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  • Compared to the years prior to Operation Mercury (2017-2018), there has been an approximate decrease of 4.5% (866 hectares) in mining-related deforestation. Most notably, there has been a major reduction in mining outside the corridor (from 47.7% to 23.4%), and a greater concentration within the corridor (from 52.3 to 76.6%).3  That is, an apparent major reduction in illegal mining.

Mining Corridor

Our main finding is that the vast majority (76.6%) of gold mining-related deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon occurred within the Mining Corridor.

We estimate that the deforestation due to mining is 14,117 hectares within the Mining Corridor in the last two years (2021-2022). Below, we present a series of zooms of some emblematic examples of recent mining-related deforestation in the corridor (Images A-C).

Image A: Mining Corridor

Image B: Mining Corridor

Image C: Mining Corridor

Outside of the Mining Corridor

The remaining deforestation due to mining (23.4%) is located outside the Mining Corridor. Breaking this down, 15% (2,769 hectares) occurred within indigenous territories, 4.8% (876 hectares) in buffer zones of protected areas, 0.8% (141 hectares) in forest concessions (for Brazil nuts), and 2.8% (517 hectares) in non-zoned areas during the last two years.

Regarding indigenous communities, the most affected were Barranco Chico (816 hectares) and San José de Karene (602 hectares), followed by Tres Islas (482 hectares), San Jacinto (177 hectares), Kotsimba (174 hectares), Puerto Luz (171 hectares), Boca Inambari (140 hectares), Shiringayoc (126 hectares), Arazaire (57 hectares), and El Pilar (23 hectares).

Regarding the buffer zones of protected areas, the most affected were the buffer zones of the Tambopata National Reserve, the Bahuaja Sonene National Park, and the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve. On the other hand, it has been found that mining within the actual protected areas, such as the Tambopata National Reserve and the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, has been effectively controlled by the Peruvian government through the National Service of Natural Protected Areas (SERNANP).

Regarding forest concessions, deforestation due to mining was identified in 141 hectares within Brazil nut concessions in the Pariamanu and Pariamarca river basins.

Next, we continue with a series of zooms showing some emblematic examples of recent deforestation due to mining in the following prohibited areas: indigenous communities (Barranco Chico, Image D), buffer zone of the Bahuaja Sonene National Park (Chaspa, Image E), and Brazil nut concessions (Pariamanu, Image F).

We also present an important area in the buffer zone of the Tambopata National Reserve known as La Pampa (Image G). La Pampa was the epicenter of destructive deforestation due to gold mining between 2014 and 2018. We show that after Operation Mercury, which began in early 2019, the expansion of gold mining in La Pampa was essentially halted.

Image D: Barranco Chico (Indigenous Community)

Image E: Chaspa (Buffer Zone of Bahuaja Sonene National Park)

Image F: Pariamanu (Brazil Nut Concession)

Image G: La Pampa (Buffer Zone of Tambopata National Reserve)

Annex

We show a version of the Basemap without the zoom insets.

Base Map (without insets). Deforestation by Gold Mining in the Southern Peruvian Amazon, with Update 2021-22. Click image to enlarge. Data: ACA/MAAP, CINCIA.

Notes

1The Mining Corridor, designated by Legislative Decree No. 1100 as the “Zone for small-scale and artisanal mining in the department of Madre de Dios,” categorizes mining activities as follows:

  • Formal: Completed formalization process with approved environmental and operational permits.
  • Informal: In the process of formalization; Operates only in authorized extraction areas, uses permitted machinery, and is considered an administrative offense, not a crime.
  • Illegal: Operates in prohibited areas such as bodies of water (e.g., rivers or lakes), uses prohibited machinery, is considered a criminal offense, and is punishable by imprisonment.

2 Due to the possibility that these activities could be existing operations prior to the declaration of Natural Protected Areas and their buffer zones.

3 The data for 2017-2018 were obtained from the Amazonian Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA.

Methodology

Mining Corridor

We used LandTrendR, a temporal segmentation algorithm that identifies changes in pixel values over time, to detect forest loss within the Mining Corridor in 2021 and 2022 using the Google Earth Engine platform. It is important to note that this method was originally designed for Landsat images with moderate resolution (30 meters)1, but we adapted it for higher spatial resolution NICFI-Planet monthly mosaics (4.7 meters).2

Additionally, we created a baseline for the period 2016-2020 to eliminate old deforested areas (prior to 2021) due to rapid changes in the natural regrowth process.

Finally, we manually separated forest loss due to mining and other causes in 2021 and 2022 to specifically report on direct impacts related to mining. For this part of the analysis, we used various resources to aid the manual process, such as radar image alerts (RAMI) from the SERVIR Amazonia program, historical data from CINCIA from 1985 to 2020, forest loss data from the Peruvian government (National Forest Conservation Program for Climate Change Mitigation), and the University of Maryland.

  1. Kennedy, R.E., Yang, Z., Gorelick, N., Braaten, J., Cavalcante, L., Cohen, W.B., Healey, S. (2018). Implementation of the LandTrendr Algorithm on Google Earth Engine. Remote Sensing. 10, 691.
  2.  Erik Lindquist, FAO, 2021

Outside the Mining Corridor

These places were identified as the main active fronts of deforestation due to gold mining, based on historical data from the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA and automatic alerts of forest loss generated by both the University of Maryland (GLAD alerts) and the Peruvian government platform (PNCBMCC-Geobosques).

The analysis combines the LandTrendr method (described earlier) with a photo interpretation based on high-resolution satellite images from Planet (3 meters). In each of the sites, we have detected, identified, and analyzed deforestation due to gold mining between 2021 and 2022. For areas with overlap between native communities and buffer zones, priority was given to the areas of the native communities.

Acknowledgements

We thank S. Novoa, C. Zavala, O. Liao, K. Nielsen, S. Otoya, and C. Ipenza for their valuable contributions and comments to this report, and R. McMullen for translation. We also thank C. Ascorra and M. Pillaca from the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA for providing us with historical mining data from 1985 to 2021.

This report was prepared with the technical support of USAID through the Prevent Project. Prevent (Proyecto Prevenir in Spanish) works with the Government of Peru, civil society, and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali.

Disclaimer: This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through USAID. The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

 

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2023) Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon: 2021-2022 Update. MAAP: 185.

MAAP #183: Protected Areas & Indigenous Territories Effective Against Deforestation Across Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Base Map. Primary forest loss (2017-21) across the Amazon, in relation to protected areas and indigenous territories.

As deforestation continues to threaten primary forest across the Amazon, key land use designations are one of the best hopes for the long-term conservation of critical remaining intact forests.

Here, we evaluate the impact of two of the most important: protected areas & indigenous territories.

Our study looked across all nine countries of the Amazon biome, a vast area of 883.7 million hectares (see Base Map).

We calculated primary forest loss over the past 5 years (2017-2021).

For the first time, we were able to distinguish fire vs non-fire forest loss. For non-fire, while this does include natural events (such as landslides and wind storms), we consider this our best proxy for human-caused deforestation.

We analyzed the results across three major land use categories:

1) Protected Areas (national and state/department levels), which cover 197 million hectares (23.6% of Amazon).

2) Indigenous Territories (official), which cover 163.8 million hectares (19.6% of Amazon).

3) Other (all remaining areas outside protected areas and indigenous territories), which cover 473 million hectares (56.7% of Amazon).

In summary, we found that deforestation was the primary driver of forest loss, with fire always being a smaller subset. Averaged across all 5 years, protected areas and indigenous territories had similar levels of effectiveness, reducing primary forest loss rate by 3x compared to areas outside of these designations.

Below, we show the key results across the Amazon in greater detail, including a breakdown for the western Amazon (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru) and the Brazilian Amazon.

Key Findings

Amazon Biome

We documented the loss of 11 million hectares of primary forests across all nine countries of the Amazon biome between 2017 and 2021. Of this total, 71% was non-fire (deforestation and natural) and 29% was fire.

For the major land use categories, 11% of the forest loss occurred in both protected areas and indigenous territories, respectively, while the remaining 78% occurred outside these designations.

To standardize these results for the varying area coverages, we calculated annual primary forest loss rates (loss/total area of each category). Figure 1 displays the results for these rates across all nine countries of the Amazon biome.

Figure 1. Primary forest loss rates across the Amazon, 2017-21.

Broken down by year, 2017 had the highest forest loss rates, with both a severe deforestation and fire season. In addition, 2021 had the second highest deforestation rate, while 2020 had the second highest fire loss rate.

Averaged across all five years, protected areas (green) had the lowest overall primary forest loss rate (0.12%), closely followed by indigenous territories (0.14%).

Interestingly, indigenous territories (orange) actually had a slightly lower deforestation rate compared to protected areas (0.7 vs 0.8%), but higher fire loss rate (o.7 vs .04%), resulting in the overall higher forest loss rate noted above.

Outside of these designations (red), the primary forest loss rate was triple (.36%), especially due to much higher deforestation.

Western Amazon

Breaking the results down specifically for the western Amazon (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru), we documented the loss of 2.6 million hectares of primary forests between 2017 and 2021. Of this total, 80% was non-fire (deforestation and natural) and 20% was fire.

For the major land use categories, 9.6% occurred in protected areas, 15.6% in indigenous territories, and the remaining 74.8% occurred outside these designations.

Figure 2 displays the standardized primary forest loss rates across the western Amazon.

Figure 2. Primary forest loss rates across the Western Amazon, 2017-21.

Broken down by year, 2017 had the highest deforestation rate and overall forest loss rates. But 2020 had the highest fire loss rate, mainly due to extensive fires in Bolivia. 2021 also had a relatively high deforestation rate. Also, note the high level of fires in protected areas in 2020 and 2021, and indigenous territories in 2019.

Averaged across all five years, protected areas had the lowest overall primary forest loss rate (0.11%), followed by indigenous territories (0.16%).

Outside of these designations, the primary forest loss rate was .30%. That is, triple the protected areas rate and double the indigenous territories rate.

Brazilian Amazon

Breaking the results down specifically for the Brazilian Amazon, we documented the loss of 8.1 million hectares of primary forests between 2017 and 2021. Of this total, 68% was non-fire (deforestation and natural) and 32% was fire.

For the major land use categories, 9.4% occurred in indigenous territories, 11.2% occurred in protected areas, and the remaining 79.4% occurred outside these designations.

Figure 3 displays the standardized primary forest loss rates across the Brazilian Amazon.

Figure 3. Primary forest loss rates in the Brazilian Amazon, 2017-21.

Broken down by year, 2017 had the highest forest loss rate recorded in the entire study (.58%), due to both elevated deforestation and fire. Note that indigenous territories were particularly impacted by fire in 2017.

2020 had the next highest forest loss rate, also driven by an intense fire season. Fires were not as severe the following year in 2021, but deforestation increased.

Averaged across all five years, indigenous territories had the lowest overall primary forest loss rate (0.14%), closely followed by protected areas (0.15%).

Interestingly, indigenous territories had a lower deforestation rate compared to protected areas (0.5 vs 0.11%), but higher fire impact (0.09 vs 0.04%).

Outside of these designations (red), the primary forest loss rate was triple (.45%).

Methodology

To estimate deforestation across all three categories (protected areas, indigenous territories, and other), we used annual forest loss data (2017-21) from the University of Maryland (Global Land Analysis and Discovery GLAD laboratory) to have a consistent source across all countries (Hansen et al 2013).

We obtained this data, which has a 30-meter spatial resolution, from the “Global Forest Loss due to Fires 2000–2021” data download page. It is also possible to visualize and interact with the data on the main Global Forest Change portal.

The annual data is disaggregated into forest loss due to fire vs. non-fire (other disturbance drivers). It is important to note that the non-fire drivers include both human-caused deforestation and forest loss caused by natural forces (landslides, wind storms, etc.).

We also filtered this data for only primary forest loss, following the established methodology of Global Forest Watch. Primary forest is generally defined as intact forest that has not been previously cleared (as opposed to previously cleared secondary forest, for example). We applied this filter by intersecting the forest cover loss data with the additional dataset “primary humid tropical forests” as of 2001 (Turubanova et al 2018). Thus, we often use the term “primary forest loss” to describe this filtered data.

Data presented as primary forest loss rate is standardized per the total area covered of each respective category per year (annual). For example, to properly compare raw forest loss data in areas that are 100 hectares vs 1,000 hectares total size respectively, we divide by the area to standardize the result.

Our geographic range extends from the Andes to the Amazon plain and reaching the transitions with the Cerrado and the Pantanal. This range includes nine countries of the Amazon (or Pan-Amazon region as defined by RAISG) and consists of a combination of the Amazon watershed limit, the Amazon biogeographic limit and the Legal Amazon limit in Brazil. See Base Map above for delineation of this hybrid Amazon limit, designed for maximum inclusion.

Additional data sources include:

  • National and state/department level protected areas: RUNAP 2020 (Colombia), SNAP 2022 (Ecuador), SERNAP & ACEAA 2020 (Bolivia), SERNANP 2022 (Peru), INPE/Terrabrasilis 2022 (Brazil), SOS Orinoco 2021 (Venezuela), and RAISG 2020 (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana.)
  • Indigenous Territories: RAISG & Ecociencia 2022 (Ecuador), INPE/Terrabrasilis 2022 (Brazil), RAISG 2020 (Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana), and MINCU & ACCA 2021 (Peru). For Peru, this includes titled native communities and Indigenous/Territorial Reserves for indigenous groups in voluntary isolation.

For analysis, we categorized Protected Areas first, then Indigenous Territories to avoid overlapping areas. Each category was disaggregated by year created/recognized to match the annual report of forest loss, for example. If a Protected area was created in December 2018, it would be considered within the analysis for the year 2019.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Andes Amazon Fund (AAF), Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), and International Conservation Fund of Canada (ICFC).

We thank M. MacDowell and M. Cohen for helpful comments on this report.

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2023) Protected Areas & Indigenous Territories Effective Against Deforestation Across Amazon. MAAP: 176.

MAAP #178: Gold Mining Deforestation Across the Amazon

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Base Map. Mining deforestation hotspots across the Amazon. Letters A-J indicate locations of case studies below. Click image to enlarge.

Gold Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon.

Although not typically at the scale of agricultural deforestation, gold mining has the potential to severely impact critical areas such as protected areas & indigenous territories.

Relatedly, gold mining often targets remote areas, thus impacting largely intact and carbon-rich primary forests.

Here, for the first time, we present a large-scale overview of the major gold mining deforestation hotspots across the entire Amazon biome.

We found that gold mining is actively causing deforestation in nearly all nine countries of the Amazon (see Base Map).

In  this report, we focus on five countries: Peru, Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia, featuring case studies of the most severe active gold mining fronts.

In most cases, this mining is likely illegal given that it is occurring in protected areas and indigenous territories.

Note that we focus on mining activity that is causing deforestation of primary forests. There are additional critical gold mining areas that are occurring in rivers, such as in northern Peru and southern Colombia, that are not included in this report.

Below, we show a series high-resolution satellite images of the Amazon case studies. Each example highlights recent gold mining deforestation; that is comparing 2020 (left panel) with 2022 (right panel).

Case Studies, in High-resolution

Peruvian Amazon

Southern Peru (specifically, the region of Madre de Dios) is one of the most severe and emblematic examples of gold mining deforestation in the Amazon, clearing thousands of hectares of primary forest (see MAAP #154). The active mining fronts have evolved substantially over the past 20+ years. Most recently, gold mining has impacted areas such as Mangote and Pariamanu.

A. Mangote

B. Pariamanu

Brazilian Amazon

In the vast Brazilian Amazon, illegal gold mining deforestation is most severe across a number of indigenous territories, most notably: Munduruku (Pará state), Kayapó (Pará), and Yanomami (Roraima).

C. Munduruku Indigenous Territory


D. Kayapó Indigenous Territory


E. Yanomami Indigenous Territory

Venezuelan Amazon

Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers in the Venezuelan Amazon (MAAP #155). This mining impact is occurring in the designated Orinoco Mining Arc, but also key protected areas such as Caura, Canaima, and Yapacana National Parks.

F. Canaima National Park


G. Yapacana National Park

Ecuadorian Amazon

We have been documenting the numerous mining deforestation hotspots in the Ecuadorian Amazon that appear to be intensifying in recent years. Two key examples are along the Punino River (Napo and Orellana provinces) and further south in Podocarpus National Park.

H. Punino River

I. Podocarpus National Park

Bolivian Amazon

One of the newest gold mining deforestation hotspots is along the Tuichi River in Madidi National Park.

J. Madidi National Park

Methodology

Mining deforestation hotspots were identified based on MAAP’s ongoing monitoring efforts, and assisted by Amazon Mining Watch.

Acknowledgements

We thank A. Folhadella, S. Novoa, D. Larrea, C. De Ugarte, and M. Teran for helpful comments on this report, and Conservación Amazónica – ACCA for data on mining sites in northern Peru.

This work was supported by Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation) and ICFC (International Conservation Fund of Canada).

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A, Mamani N (2023) Mining Deforestation Across the Amazon. MAAP: 178.

MAAP #171: Deforestation in Mining Corridor of Peruvian Amazon (2021-2022)

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Figure 1. Recent mining deforestation in the Guacamayo zone of the Mining Corridor (Madre de Dios region of the southern Peruvian Amazon). Data: Planet.

Gold mining continues to be one of the main deforestation drivers in the southern Peruvian Amazon (Madre de Dios region).

In a recent report (MAAP #154), we highlighted the key cases of illegal mining in this area.

In an attempt to organize mining activities and promote a formalization process,* the Peruvian government has delimited a large Mining Corridor in Madre de Dios (see Base Map below).

Here, we analyze recent (2021 – 2022) deforestation in the Mining Corridor, using a novel methodology.

Deforestation within its limits is important because, although it may not be illegal, can be considerable due to the large area covered by the Mining Corridor (498,296 hectares, or 1.2 million acres).

The key part of this analysis is the novel ability to distinguish mining deforestation from agriculture deforestation, which is also common in the area.

In summary, we estimate the direct mining deforestation of 11,200 hectares (27,675 acres) in the Mining Corridor over the last two years (2021-22).

Deforestation in the Mining Corridor

Base Map. Mining (red) vs Agriculture (yellow) deforestation within the Mining Corridor in the southern Amazon of Peru (Madre de Dios region), during the years 2021 and 2022. Data: ACCA/MAAP.

We found a total deforestation of 16,000 hectares (39,500 acres) within the Mining Corridor over the past two years (2021 and 2022).

Of this deforestation total, 70% is directly linked to gold mining (11,200 hectares; indicated by red on the Base Map), while the remaining 30%  loss is agricultural expansion (4,800 hectares; indicated by yellow).

In the Base Map, note that mining deforestation is largely concentrated in three general areas:
(A) along the Madre Dios River, (B) the Guacamayo mining zone (also see Figure 1, above), and (C) around the perimeter of the Huepetuhe mining zone.

*Note on the mining formalization process in Peru

In the Mining Corridor, officially called the “Zona de pequeña minería y minería artesanal en el departamento de
Madre de Dios,” declared by Legislative Decree No. 1100, mining activities can be classified into one of three scenarios:

1) Formal: Formalization process completed, with approved environmental and operational permits.
2) Informal: In the process of being formalized, operating in spaces where extraction is allowed and using permitted machinery. This type is considered an administrative offense, not a crime.
3) Illegal: Operating in prohibited areas such as bodies of water (for example, a river or a lake) and/or using prohibited machinery. This type is considered a crime and is punishable by jail.

Methodology

We used LandTrendr, a temporal segmentation algorithm that identifies changes in pixel values through time, to detect forest loss within the mining corridor in 2021 (September 2020 – September 2021) and 2022 (September 2021 – July 2022). It is important to emphasize this method was originally designed for moderate-resolution (30 meters) Landsat imagery,1 but we adapted it for higher-resolution (4.7 meters) NICFI-Planet monthly mosaics.2

Additionally, we created a baseline for the period 2016- 2020 to eliminate old agriculture and mining areas (pre-2021) due to rapid changes in the natural re-vegetation process.

Finally, we manually separated the mining and non-mining forest loss for 2021 and 2022, in order to report specifically on direct mining-related impacts. For this part of the analysis, we used various resources to aid the manual process, such as radar-based alerts (RAMI), CINCIA historical data from 1985 to 2020, and forest loss data from the Peruvian government (PNCB) and the University of Maryland.

1. Kennedy, R.E., Yang, Z., Gorelick, N., Braaten, J., Cavalcante, L., Cohen, W.B., Healey, S. (2018). Implementation of the LandTrendr Algorithm on Google Earth Engine. Remote Sensing. 10, 691.
2.  Erik Lindquist, FAO, 2021

Acknowledgments

We thank S. Otoya for helpful comments on this report.

This report was conducted with technical assistance from USAID, via the Prevent project. Prevent works with the Government of Peru, civil society and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the sake of the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios and Ucayali.

This publication is made possible with the support of the American people through USAID. Its content is the sole responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the US government.

 

Citation

Mamani N, Finer M (2022) Deforestation in Mining Corridor of Peruvian Amazon (2021-2022). MAAP: 171.

MAAP #166: Mennonites have deforested 4,800 hectares (11,900 acres) in the Peruvian Amazon

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Base Map. Mennonite colonies in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACA/MAAP.

Since 2017, the Mennonites have arrived in the Peruvian Amazon and created 5 new colonies.

Here, we show that these colonies have caused the deforestation of more than 4,800 hectares (11,860 acres) of tropical forest, including 650 hectares (1,600 acres) in 2022.

The Base Map shows the current situation regarding the Mennonites in Peru. Note that the 5 colonies are indicated in red.

The Padre Marquez colony, located on both sides of the border between the regions of Ucayali and Loreto, has caused the deforestation of 976 hectares (2,412 acres). It is the newest colony (and represents the most urgent current situation), created in 2021 and with a great expansion in the current year 2022.

The Vanderland, Osterreich and Belize colonies, located near the town of Tierra Blanca (Loreto region), have caused the deforestation of 2,884 hectares (7,126 acres) since 2017. These colonies are also expanding in 2022.

The Masisea colony, located south of the city of Pucallpa (Ucayali region), has caused the deforestation of 960 hectares (2,372 acres) since 2017.

In total, we have documented the deforestation of 4,819 hectares (11,908 acres) in the five new Mennonite colonies in the Peruvian Amazon.

Below, we detail the deforestation history in each colony since 2017, with an emphasis on the most recent loss in 2022.

Deforestation in Mennonite Colonies (Peruvian Amazon)

Padre Marquez Colony

This colony is located on both sides of the border between the departments of Ucayali and Loreto, and has received its name since it originated in the district of Padre Marquez (Loreto). It is the newest colony, created in 2021 with the deforestation of 466 hectares (1,150 acres). This colony had a large expansion in 2022 (perhaps forming a new colony?), with additional deforestation of 491 hectares (1,213 acres). In total, we documented the deforestation of 976 hectares (2,412 acres) in the Padre Marquez colony, between the two years 2021 and 2022 (see yellow and red, respectively, in the image below). It should be emphasized that we estimate the additional degradation of 1,600 hectares (3,954 acrres) by fires that have escaped from the Mennonite plantations into the surrounding forests.

Deforestation in the Padre Marquez Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.
Recent image of deforestation in the Padre Marquez Mennonite colony. Data: Planet.

Vanderland & Osterreich Colonies

These two colonies are located near the town of Tierra Blanca, in the Loreto region. Deforestation was highest between the years 2017 and 2020, with the loss of 2,300 hectares (5,683 acres) (see yellow in the image, below). In 2022, we have detected the new deforestation of 71 hectares (175 acres) (see red).

Deforestation in the Vanderland & Osterreich Mennonite colonies. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.
Recent image of deforestation in the Vanderland & Osterreich Mennonite colonies. Data: Planet.

Belize Colony

This colony is also located near the town of Tierra Blanca (Loreto region) and also registered the highest deforestation between 2017 and 2020, with the loss of 438 hectares (1,082 acres). In 2022, we have detected a new deforestation of 74 hectares (182 acres). Note that this most recent 2022 deforestation is expanding deeper into the surrounding forest.

Deforestation in the Belize Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.
Recent image of deforestation in the Belize Mennonite colony. Data: Planet.

Masisea Colony

Esta colonia se ubica en la región Ucayali, y es la única que se ubica al sur de la ciudad de Pucallpa. La deforestación fue más alta entre los años 2017 y 2019, con la pérdida de 944 hectáreas. Al este, hubo una expansión en el 2021 de 47 hectáreas adicionales. No hemos detectado expansión notable en el 2022.

This colony is located in the Ucayali region, and is the only one located south of the city of Pucallpa. Deforestation was highest between 2017 and 2019, with the loss of 944 hectares (2,332 acres). To the east, there was an expansion in 2021 of an additional 47 hectares (117 acres). We have not detected notable expansion in 2022.

Deforestation in the Masisea Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.
Recent image of deforestation in the Masisea Mennonite colony. Data: Planet.

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A (2022) Mennonites have deforested 4,800 hectares (11,900 acres) in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 166.

MAAP #164: Amazon Tipping Point – Where Are We?

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Base Map. Total Amazon forest loss. Data: ACA/MAAP.

It is increasingly reported that the largest rainforest in the world, the Amazon, is rapidly approaching a tipping point.

As repeatedly highlighted by the late Tom Lovejoy (see Acknowledgements), this tipping point is where parts of the rainforest will convert into drier ecosystems due to disrupted precipitation patterns and more intense dry seasons, both exacerbated by deforestation.

The Amazon generates much of its own rainfall by recycling water as air passes from its major source in the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, high deforestation in the eastern Amazon may lead to downwind impacts in the central and western Amazon (see Background section below).

The scientific literature indicates this tipping point could be triggered at 25% Amazon forest loss, in conjunction with climate change impacts.

The literature, however, is less clear on the critical first part of the tipping point equation: how much of the Amazon has already been lost?

There are numerous estimates, including 14% forest loss cited in the recent Science Panel for the Amazon report, but we did not find any actual definitive studies specifically addressing this question.

Here, we directly tackle this key question of how much of the original Amazon has been lost to date.

First, we present the first known rigorous estimate of original Amazon biome forest prior to European colonization: over 647 million hectares (1.6 billion acres; see Image 1 below).

Second, we estimate the accumulated total Amazon forest loss, from the original estimate to the present: over 85 million hectares (211 million acres; see Base Map).

Combining these two results, we estimate that 13% of the original Amazon biome forest has been lost.

More importantly, however, focusing on just the eastern third of the Amazon biome (see Image 2 below), we estimate that 31% of the original forest has been lost, above the speculated tipping point threshold. This finding is critical because the tipping point will likely be triggered in the eastern Amazon, as it is closest to the oceanic source of the water that then flows to the central and western Amazon.

Original Amazon Forest

Image 1 shows the first known estimate of original Amazon forest prior to European colonization. Note that we use a broader biogeographical definition of the Amazon that covers nine countries (Amazon biome) rather than the strict Amazon watershed (see Methodology).

Image 1. Original Amazon biome forest. Data: ACA/MAAP.

This represents the most rigorous effort to date to recreate the original Amazon. For example, we attempted to recreate original forest lost to historic dam reservoirs.

The map has just three classes: Original Amazon forest, Original non-forest (such as natural savannah), and Water.

We found that the original Amazon forest covered over 647 million hectares (647,607,020 ha). This is equivalent to 1.6 billion acres.

Of this total, 61.4% occurred in Brazil, followed by Peru (12%), Colombia (7%), Venezuela (6%), and Bolivia (5%). The remaining four countries (Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana) make up the final 8%.

Amazon Forest Loss

Image 2 shows the accumulated total Amazon forest loss, from the original estimate to the present (2022).

Image 2. Total Amazon forest loss. Vertical lines indicate the Amazon broken down into thirds. Data: ACA/MAAP.

Of the original forest noted above, we documented the historic loss of over 85 million hectares (85,499,157 ha). This is equivalent to 211 million acres.

The largest loss occurred in Brazil (69.5 million ha), followed by Peru (4.7 million ha), Colombia (4 million ha), Bolivia (3.8 million ha), and Venezuela (1.4 million ha). The remaining four countries (Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana) make up the final 1.9 million ha.

By comparing the original Amazon biome, we calculated the historic loss of 13.2% of the original Amazon forest due to deforestation and other causes.

More importantly, however, we find that 30.8% of the original Amazon has been lost in the eastern third of the Amazon biome (see vertical dashed lines Image 2), above the speculated tipping point threshold. This finding is critical because as noted above, the tipping point will likely be triggered in the east as it is the source of the water flowing to the central and western Amazon.

In contrast, we find that 10.8% of the original Amazon has been lost in the central third of the Amazon biome and 6.3% has been lost in the western third, both of which are below the speculated tipping point threshold.

Background

The Amazon generates around half of its own rainfall by recycling moisture up to 6 times as air masses move from the Atlantic Ocean in the east across the basin to the west. Thus, the rainforest plays a major part in keeping itself alive, by recycling water through its trees to generate rainfall from east to west.

This unique hydrological cycle has historically supported rainforest ecosystems for vast areas far from the main ocean source.

But it also raises the question of how much deforestation would be required to cause the cycle to degrade to the point of being unable to support these forests, thus the Amazon tipping point hypothesis.

In this scenario, rainforests would transform into drier ecosystems, such as open canopy scrubland and savannah.

The tipping point concept originally referred to an abrupt ecosystem change, but it is now believed that the shift could happen gradually (30-50 years).

It is worth noting that the western Amazon near the Andes mountains would likely maintain its rainforests, as air currents flowing over the mountains would continue causing water vapor to condense and fall as rain.

Methodology

At the core of this work, we generated two major estimates: original Amazon forest and total historical Amazon forest loss.

For both of these estimates, we used the biogeographical boundary of the Amazon (as determined by RAISG 2020), which encompasses nine countries. Thus, we used a broader definition of the Amazon (Amazon biome) rather than the strict Amazon watershed, which omits part of the northeastern Amazon biome.

For original Amazon forest, we defined three major classes: Forest, Non-Forest, and Water. This analysis was based on data from MapBiomas Brazil (collection 2 from 1990) with some additional modifications. Original Forest was made up of these MapBiomas categories: Forest Formation, Mangrove, Flooded Forest, Mosaic of Agriculture and Pasture. Non-Forest was made up of these MapBiomas categories: Savanna Formation, Natural Non-Forest Flood Formation, Grassland, and Other non-Forest Formations. Water was made up of these MapBiomas categories: River, Lake, Ocean and Glacier.

We then made a number of modifications with manual edits based on data from the University of Maryland, INPE (Terrabrasilis), ArcGis satellite images, Planet mosaics, Google Earth Engine Landsat images from 1984-1990, and official government data for several countries (Ministry of the Environment of Ecuador (MAE) and Peru (GeoBosques/MINAM), Forest and Carbon Monitoring System/IDEAM of Colombia, National Institute for Space Research of Brazil (INPE/Terrabrasilis), General Directorate of Forest Management and Development of Bolivia (DGGDF), and the National Service of Protected Areas of Bolivia (SERNAP). As an example of a major modification, deforested areas and historic dam reservoirs were changed to Original Forest based on an analysis of the oldest available satellite image for the area (1984-1990). We also corrected some misclassifications, such as forest patches in clearly non-forest areas were changed to Non-Forest (and vice versa) and mountain forest areas found as water were changed to Forest. Also, agriculture and urban areas in likely savannah areas were changed to Non-Forest. Additional Water data from MapBiomas based on 1985 was incorporated. Overall, our focus was defining Original Forest as best as possible; data confusions between Non-Forest and Water categories were not worked on as thoroughly.

For total historical Amazon forest loss, we used data from the University of Maryland. Specifically, we first used their data layer ‘Tree Cover 2000″ (>30% canopy density) to estimate historical (pre-2000) forest loss. We then added annual forest loss data from 2001 to 2021.

Finally, we divided the original Amazon forest by the total historical loss to estimate how much of the original Amazon has been lost. In addition, we delimited the Amazon in thirds according to distance east to west at the widest point. We then estimated how much of the original Amazon has been lost in each of these three sections.

References

(in chronological order)

Sampaio, G., Nobre, C., Costa, M. H., Satyamurty, P., Soares‐Filho, B. S., & Cardoso, M. (2007). Regional climate change over eastern Amazonia caused by pasture and soybean cropland expansion. Geophysical Research Letters, 34(17).

Hansen, M. C. et. al. (2013) High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change. Science 342.

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Turubanova S., Potapov P., Tyukavina, A., and Hansen M. (2018) Ongoing primary forest loss in Brazil, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Indonesia. Environmental Research Letters.

Lovejoy, T. E., & Nobre, C. (2018). Amazon Tipping Point. Science Advances, 4(2).

Lovejoy, T. E., & Nobre, C. (2019). Amazon tipping point: Last chance for action. Science Advances, 5 (12).

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Acknowledgements

This report is in memory of Tom Lovejoy, who helped launch the critical concept of an Amazon tipping point. Starting in 2019, we collaborated with Tom on the need assessment and background research behind this report.

We thank Carmen Thorndike for helping with the initial literature review, and Carlos Nobre for review of the final report. We also thank J. Beavers (ACA), A. Folhadella (ACA), M.E. Gutierrez (ACCA), and C. Josse (EcoCiencia) for additional comments.

This work was supported by NORAD (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation) and ICFC (International Conservation Fund of Canada).

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2022) Amazon Tipping Point – Where Are We?. MAAP: 164.

MAAP #165: Confirming Deforestation by Mennonites in the Peruvian Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Recent deforestation in the Padre Marquez Mennonite colony. Data: Planet/Skysat, MAAP.

In a series of previous reports, we have documented the extensive recent deforestation from new Mennonite colonies arriving in the Peruvian Amazon (see MAAP #149).

However, despite the extensive evidence provided by satellite images, the Mennonites have repeatedly denied this deforestation (see References).

Most recently, we detected that the Mennonites had resumed deforestation in the newest colony that we refer to as Padre Marquez (see Base Map in the Annex).

This new deforestation cleared over 90 hectares of primary forest between just August and early September 2022.

In response, we tasked very high-resolution satellite images (0.5 meters from Planet/Skysat) over the area.

Here, we present these images in comparison to previous Skysats obtained last year, thus providing additional evidence that Mennonites are indeed clearing primary forest.

 

 

 

Recent Mennonite Deforestation
Documented with Very High-Resolution Imagery

The following image serves as a base map of the recent deforestation in the Padre Marquez Mennonite colony. Insets A-F correspond to the zooms further below. In each of these zooms, we show very high-resolution images (0.5 meters) obtained in both November 2021 (left panels) and August 2022 (right panels). Thus, they serve as the latest evidence that the Mennonites are indeed clearing primary forest.

Base map of the recent deforestation in the Padre Marquez Mennonite colony. Insets A-F correspond to the zooms below. Data: Planet/Skysat, MAAP.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Annex – Base Map of Mennonite Colonies in Peruvian Amazon

Base Map. Mennonite Colonies in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACA/MAAP.

References

Collyns D (2022) The Mennonites being accused of deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon. Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/11/mennonites-peru-deforestation-permits

Collyns D (2022) Meet the Mennonites in Peru. CGTN America

Sierra Y (2022) Menonitas en Perú: tres colonias investigadas por la deforestación de casi 4 mil hectáreas de bosque en la Amazonía. Mongabay

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A (2022) Confirming Deforestation by Mennonites in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 165.