Mining and Logging Threat: Gold Mining

MAAP #234: Illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park, including on top of Yapacana Tepui (Venezuelan Amazon)

Posted on by Matt Finer
Intro Image. Illegal gold mining deforestation (in red) on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: Planet

In a series of previous reports, and in collaboration with SOS Orinoco, we have tracked the illegal gold mining deforestation and related impacts in Yapacana National Park, located in the Venezuelan Amazon.

Critically, some of this illegal mining activity has been happening on top of the Yapacana tepui (see red circles in Intro Image). 

Tepuis are stunning table-top mountains found in northern South America. They are considered sacred by indigenous groups of the Guiana Shield region; in fact, the word tepui means “mountain” in the local indigenous (Pemon) language. 

In 2022, we published an urgent report about the illegal mining on top of the Yapacana tepui (MAAP #169). In this report, we documented over 400 points of mining camps and heavy machinery, indicating an organized and large-scale operation, causing the deforestation of 8.8 hectares on top of the tepui.

Given the importance of this finding, the Washington Post published a high-profile article on the subject, further exposing the severity of the illegal mining on the tepui.

In response, the Venezuelan government conducted a military operation against illegal mining activity on the tepui in December 2022.

In early 2024, we reported that all illegal mining camps and equipment on top of the tepui had been removed (MAAP #207). Indeed, we detected no additional mining deforestation on top of the tepui during 2024.

However, we now present evidence that the illegal mining activity has resumed on top of the tepui in 2025. 

We also show continuing mining deforestation surrounding the tepui in other parts of Yapacana National Park. As of the time of the government intervention in late 2022, we detected the cumulative mining deforestation of 2,190 hectares in the park, including large increases in both 2021 and 2022 (MAAP #173). This mining deforestation has slowed, particularly in 2024 and 2025, but has now impacted 2,240 hectares in the park.

Gold Mining Deforestation in Yapacana National Park, 2020-2025

Figure 1 presents our digitized results for annual mining deforestation across all mining areas in Yapacana National Park, based on an analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Graph 1. Mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park. Data: ACA/MAAP

Graph 1 shows the trends found in the digitized data of Yapacana National Park.

The orange line shows the annual mining deforestation decreasing following the highs detected in 2021 and 2022. Both years had over 400 hectares of new mining deforestation, while 2024 had just 37 hectares.

The red line shows the cumulative mining deforestation rising from the baseline in 2020 before plateauing in 2024 and 2025, with a current deforestation total of 2,250 hectares.

 

 

 

 

 

Gold Mining Deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui, 2020-2025

Figure 2. Mining deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet, NICFI.

Figure 2 presents our digitized results for annual mining deforestation on top of the Yapacana Tepui, based on an analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Graph 2. Mining deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: ACA/MAAP,

Graph 2 shows the trends found in the digitized data on top of Yapacana Tepui.

The orange line shows the annual mining deforestation of about 2 hectares in both 2021 and 2022, followed by a notable decrease after the government intervention in late 2022. In fact, there was zero detected mining deforestation in 2024, followed by the reappearance detailed in this report.

The red line shows the cumulative mining deforestation rising from the baseline in 2020 before plateauing in 2024 and 2025, with a current deforestation total of  9.3 hectares.

 

 

 

 

Recent Gold Mining Deforestation Events, 2024-2025

Base Map. Boxes A-C indicate location of detailed analysis below. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet, NICFI

In the Base Map, Insets A-C indicate the three areas with documented gold mining expansion between 2024 and 2025, based on an analysis of very high-resolution satellite imagery.

Below, we provide a more detailed examination of these three areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Illegal gold mining on top of the Yapacana Tepui

Zoom A shows the recent gold mining deforestation of 0.09 hectares between January 2024 (left panel) and August 2025 (right panel), located on the top of the Yapacana Tepui in Yapacana National Park. Although a small expansion, it indicates the return of illegal mining on the tepui.

Zoom A. Gold mining deforestation on top of Yapacana Tepui. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP

Illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park

Zoom B shows the recent gold mining deforestation of 22.4 hectares between March 2024 (left panel) and August 2025 (right panel) in Yapacana National Park, just to the north of the Yapacana Tepui. There are also signs of mining equipment associated with this activity.

Zoom B. Gold mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP

Zoom C shows the recent gold mining deforestation of 1.01 hectares between March 2024 (left panel) and August 2025 (right panel) in Yapacana National Park, just to the north of the Yapacana Tepui.

Zoom C. Gold mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP

Policy Implications:

Photo of illegal gold mining in Yapacana National Park. Credit: SOSOrinoco

Mining is strictly prohibited in all Venezuelan national parks. This legal protection is fundamental to the conservation of the country’s most biodiverse and ecologically significant areas.

In addition, mining is explicitly prohibited in Amazonas (state in which Yapacana National Park is located) by Presidential Decree No. 269 (1989). This decree was enacted to safeguard the unique ecosystems and indigenous territories of the region, recognizing their global and national importance.

To enforce these legal prohibitions, there is a permanent command post of the Bolivarian National Guard at the entrance of Yapacana National Park. The presence of this security force raises important questions about the effectiveness and willingness of law enforcement and the actual control over activities within the park.

Although the recent mining deforestation on top of the Yapacana Tepui in 2025 is quantitatively small (0.09 hectares), it highlights the importance of early detection and response, especially in such ecologically and culturally sensitive zones. The fact that this renewed activity occurs in the presence of a permanent National Guard command post raises serious concerns about the effectiveness of enforcement and the real capacity of the state to prevent illegal operations. It also suggests that even minimal incursions should not be dismissed, as they may signal the beginning of a new cycle of degradation.

Fuel distribution in the region is officially managed by PDVSA (the state oil company) under strict military supervision. However, given Amazonas’ status as a border state with Colombia and Brazil, gasoline may also be sourced from one of them, most likely Colombia, due to its proximity. The transport of fuel—whether Venezuelan or Colombian—requires the use of boats or helicopters, both of which are highly visible and subject to monitoring by the Bolivarian National Armed Forces. This context places the Armed Forces at the center of the logistical dynamics that either enable or prevent illegal mining, as both aerial control and fuel supply are essential for mining operations.

These facts invite us to reflect critically on the disconnect between legal frameworks and on-the-ground realities. How is it possible that illegal mining persists and even expands in areas with such clear legal protection and a strong security presence? What are the implications for conservation, indigenous rights, and the rule of law? The answers to these questions are crucial for understanding the challenges facing protected areas in Venezuela and for designing more effective strategies to address them.

This entire situation highlights the need to establish mechanisms to monitor illegal gold trafficking, both at its exit points outside the country and on the routes to the markets where the gold is refined and sold.

Biodiversity impacts:

Photo of Yapacana Tepui. Credit: SOSOrinoco

Yapacana Tepui (Cerro Yapacana), a sandstone mountain rising to 1,345 meters above sea level in the southwestern quadrant of Yapacana National Park (PNY), is a geomorphologically and ecologically unique formation within the Venezuelan Amazon. The park encompasses a mosaic of landscapes, including alluvial plains, erosion-alteration peneplains, and nutrient-poor white sand savannas, which host highly specialized vegetation with floristic links to both the Paleotropics and Neotropics. The mountain itself supports two distinct montane forest types—submontane evergreen forests on its slopes and cloud forests on its summit—harboring at least eight critically endangered endemic plant species. These ecosystems are part of the ancestral territory of Arawako, Huottüja (Piaroa), and Mako peoples, who regard the tepui as sacred (MARNR-ORSTOM 1988; Castillo y Salas 2007; SOSOrinoco 2019).

Illegal gold mining has emerged as a major threat to the integrity of these ecosystems, particularly on the summit of Cerro Yapacana, where deforestation from mining camps and machinery has directly impacted the fragile forest habitat. The destruction of summit vegetation not only endangers endemic flora but also disrupts ecological processes vital to the survival of species such as the Yapacana antbird (Myrmeciza disjuncta) and the red Yapacana frog (Minyobates steyermarki), both of which are exclusive to this tepui. Mining-induced deforestation across the park has reached over 2,240 hectares, threatening the continuity of forest cover, savannas and the ecological connectivity essential for species migration and resilience (Huber 1995; Llamozas et al., 2003; Lentino, 2006; Señaris and Rivas, 2006).

The broader biodiversity of Yapacana National Park is also at risk, including its designation as an Important Bird Area (IBA) due to the presence of species such as Crax alector, Selenidera nattereri, and migratory birds like Dendroica striata. The park hosts over 260 bird species, alongside 51 reptiles and 29 amphibians (Lentino, 2006; Señaris and Rivas, 2006). The illegal mining not only degrades these habitats but also introduces pollutants and human disturbance, undermining conservation efforts and threatening the survival of species with restricted ranges and specialized ecological requirements. Urgent and sustained action is needed to halt further degradation and safeguard the exceptional biodiversity of Cerro Yapacana and its surrounding ecosystems (SOSOrinoco, 2019).

Acknowledgements

We thank the organization  SOSOrinoco for important information and comments related to this report.

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Amazon, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

MAAP #233: Current situation of gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon.

Gold mining continues to increase in the Peruvian Amazon. Following the initial success of the major multisectoral government intervention Operation Mercury in southern Peru in early 2019 (MAAP #104, MAAP #121, MAAP #130), the illegal mining activity rebounded during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the government withdrew from the area (Vadillo, 2022).

The current increase, directly linked to soaring international gold prices, has led to expanding mining activity: continuing mining in southern Peru, and emerging mining fronts in the central and northern parts of the country.

This report presents information on the current state of gold mining activity, in both forests and rivers, across all of the Peruvian Amazon.

Notably, we report that gold mining has spread to nine regions across the Peruvian Amazon: Amazonas, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco, Puno, and Ucayali.

Total gold mining deforestation has reached 139,169 hectares (343,894 acres) as of mid-2025, the vast majority (97.5%) in the Madre de Dios region of southern Peru. The Huánuco and Puno regions have also experienced rising mining deforestation (1,262 and 1,014 hectares, respectively).

Moreover, alluvial gold mining is also expanding in numerous rivers across the Peruvian Amazon, especially in the northern regions of Loreto and Amazonas. We have identified 989 mining dredges in Loreto since 2017, followed by 174  in Amazonas.

Overall, we have documented gold mining activity in 225 water bodies (rivers and streams) across the Peruvian Amazon.

Below, we present the detailed results of this report in three regional sections: northern Peru (Amazonas, Cajamarca, and Loreto); central Peru (Huánuco, Pasco, and Ucayali); and southern Peru (Cusco, Madre de Dios, and Puno). Each section presents information about mining in forests (deforestation) and rivers.

Base Map. Data: ACA, ACCA, CINCIA, FEMA, SZF, IBC, SERNANP, Mapbiomas Perú

 

Northern Peru

Gold mining has spread to both the forests and rivers of Amazonas, Cajamarca, and Loreto regions of the northern Peruvian Amazon (Figure 1).

Gold mining deforestation has impacted 491 hectares, located near rivers and within Indigenous communities (see red areas in Figure 1). The mining deforestation has been localized along the Chinchipe River in Cajamarca, and near the Marañón River in Amazonas and Loreto.

Figure 1. Gold mining in the northern Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACCA, FEMA, SZF, IBC, SERNANP
Figure 1A. Gold mining deforestation along the Sawintsa River, Amazonas region. Data: ACCA, Maxar

We highlight the recent mining deforestation along the Sawintsa River near the Peru-Ecuador border in the Amazonas and Cajamarca regions (Figura 1A).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1B. Mining dredges identified in the Nanay River (Loreto). Data: Planet, ACCA

In addition, river-based mining has emerged as a critical issue in northern Peru, where we have documented mining barges in at least 14 rivers (see yellow dots in Figure 1).

Loreto is the most impacted region, where we have documented 989 mining dredges between 2017 and 2025.

The Nanay River, located in Loreto, is the most impacted by mining dredges Figure 1B. We have identified 841 mining dredges since 2017, including 275 in 2025. This mining activity extends into Indigenous communities and the Alto Nanay – Pintuyacu – Chambira Regional Conservation Area.

Mining also impacts the Cenepa and Santiago Rivers, located in Amazonas. We have identified 137 and 51 mining dredges, respectively, in these rivers since 2022. Some of this mining activity surrounds Indigenous communities in Amazonas.

 

 

 

Central Peru

Gold mining also impacts both the forests and rivers of Huánuco, Pasco and Ucayali regions in the central Peruvian Amazon (Figure 2).

Gold mining deforestation has reached 1,320 hectares, located along rivers, in Indigenous communities, in the Carpish Montane Forest Regional Conservation Area, and in the buffer zone of the El Sira Communal Reserve (see red areas in Figure 2).

Figure 2. Gold mining in the central Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACCA
Figure 2A. Gold mining deforestation due in Puerto Inca province, Huánuco region. Data: Maxar, ACCA

The Huánuco region is the most impacted by mining deforestation in central Peru, with the vast majority (97%) occurring in the province of Puerto Inca (Figure 2A).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figura 2b. Deforestación por minería de oro aledaño al río Chinchihuani, región Pasco. Datos: Maxar, ACCA

In the Pasco region, gold mining deforestation has been recorded in pending mining concessions along the Chinchihuani River since August 2024 (Figure 2B).

Gold mining in the Ucayali region has been located along the Abujao River.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2C. Mining dredges in the Aguaytía River, Ucayali region. Data: Maxar, ACCA

In addition, river-based mining is impacting the Aguaytía River, in the Ucayali region (see yellow dots in Figure 2).

We first detected mining dredges in mid-2024 (Figure 2C) in this area,  located near the buffer zone of Cordillera Azul National Park.

In total, we have identified 26 mining dredges in the Aguaytía River in 2024 and  2025.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Southern Peru

Gold mining deforestation has had major impacts in the regions of Cusco, Madre de Dios, and Puno, in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Note in Figure 3 that mining deforestation (indicated in red) is the dominant impact, and not mining barges as seen in the northern Peruvian Amazon.

We have documented the gold mining deforestation of ​​137,558 hectares (339,913 acres) in these southern regions, accounting for 98.7% of total mining deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon. This massive gold mining deforestation started in 1984 in Madre de Dios.

Figure 3. Gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACA, ACCA, CINCIA, Mapbiomas Perú, AMW
Figure 3A. Gold mining deforestation in the buffer zone of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: Planet

Madre de Dios has the highest gold mining deforestation of all the regions in Peru (135,939 hectares), accounting for 97.5% of the national total.

This widespread mining deforestation in Madre de Dios has extended into Indigenous communities and the buffer zones of protected areas, such as Tambopata National Reserve (Figure 3A) and Amarakaeri Communal Reserve.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figura 3b. Deforestación por minería oro en la Concesión para Conservación Camanti Sostenible. Datos: Maxar

In the Cusco region, gold mining deforestation has spread to various areas around the Araza and Nusiniscato Rivers.

Además, parte de la deforestación por minería se ha extendido al interior de la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Comunal Amarakaeri y en la Concesión para Conservación Camanti Sostenible (Figura 3b). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3C. Gold mining deforestation near the Huari Huari River. Source: ACCA, Maxar

The Puno region has experienced gold mining deforestation near the Inambari and Huari Huari Rivers (Figure 3C), surrounding the buffer zone of the Bahuaja Sonene National Park.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figura 3d. Tracas en pozas mineras en la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Nacional Tambopata. Fuente: Planet

In Madre de Dios, we have detected over 2,000 pieces of mining infrastructure, such as drills, chutes, dredges, and mining rafts (Figure 3D) (ACCA, 2022).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Policy recommendations for gold mining in Peru:

Gold mining in Peru represents one of the country’s greatest socio-environmental challenges, impacting Amazonian forests, rivers, and local communities (Arana Cardó, M, 2024). In response, we present five policy proposals aimed at minimizing this impact, focusing on 1) implementing gold traceability, 2) strengthening the Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) Law, 3) establishing environmental obligations, 4) strengthening supervision, and 5) promoting clean technologies (including banning mercury).

1. Implement an effective gold traceability system that links production, marketing, and export

Foto: ACCA

Currently, the Special Registry of Gold Traders and Processors, created by Ministerial Resolution No. 249-2012-MEM-DM, lacks effective mechanisms for cross-referencing information.

Therefore, it is recommended to consolidate a comprehensive traceability system that covers not only producers, traders, processors, and exporters, including the jewelry industry, but also the control of critical inputs such as mercury and fuels, in order to guarantee supply chains free of contamination and illegal activities.

This system must integrate real-time digital controls, cross-reference information between what is declared as production and what is actually traded, prevent the illegal export of gold in the form of jewelry, and align with international due diligence requirements.

 

2. Strengthening the Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) Law & improving the formalizatin registry (REINFO)

Foto: ACCA

Regulations on small-scale and artisanal mining should establish clear categories based on production and technology, differentiating the formalization process (aimed at pre-existing informal miners and includes phased-in measures and technical support) from the ordinary permitting process, which requires full compliance with environmental and technical requirements for new projects.

The new law for Artisanal and Small-scale mining (ASM) should incorporate real incentives for formalization and the adoption of sustainable practices, effective oversight mechanisms, and the delimitation of exclusive zones for formalized activity, excluding natural Protected Areas, Indigenous reserves, bodies of water, and cultural heritage sites.

Additionally, this new regulation must establish mandatory due diligence throughout the gold value chain, linking the formalization process to the implementation of a traceability system. Thus, formalized miners must not only comply with basic legal requirements but also ensure that their production is free of illegal inputs such as mercury, meeting international standards of transparency and sustainability.

Likewise, given the formalization extension granted until December 31, 2025, in Supreme Decree No. 012-2025-EM, it is essential that the government improve the Comprehensive Registry of Mining Formalization (REINFO in Spanish), permanently removing those who do not meet the minimum requirements established in Law No. 32213 and its regulations, as indicated by its update through Supreme Decree No. 009-2025-EM. Furthermore, proportional sanctioning mechanisms must be evaluated to discourage the misuse of the registry. Only in this way will it be possible to prevent this registry from continuing to be used as a shield of impunity against the actions of the Public Prosecutor’s Office and the National Police, and to ensure that formalization translates into an effective change in mining practices.

3. Establish environmental obligations from the beginning of mining formalization & ensure their supervision

Foto: ACCA

Regulations should establish that all small-scale and artisanal mining activities must be subject to the respective environmental obligations from the initial formalization process, in order to ensure early and effective oversight.

During this process, operations must be subject to governmental oversight by the Environmental Assessment and Oversight Agency (OEFA in Spanish), the Supervising Agency for Investment in Energy and Mining (OSINERGMIN in Spanish), and the National Superintendence of Labor Inspection (SUNAFIL in Spanish). Likewise, administrative and criminal sanctions must be applied to responsible authorities who fail to fulfill their oversight duties.

Additionally, forest zoning should be promoted and advanced, in accordance with the provisions of the Forestry Law (Law No. 29763), with an emphasis on the Amazon regions of Peru. This should be integrated into the mining formalization process and become a formal requirement for granting permits. The integration of zoning will prevent the granting of new permits in priority forests for conservation, reducing deforestation and misuse of forests by directing mining toward areas of lower impact and prohibiting it in critical areas. This would require mining formalization authorities to consult zoning maps from the outset. That is, applicants must include the forest zoning category of their plot and demonstrate compatibility before issuing a permit.

4. Strengthen ASM supervision at the regional level through inter-institutional agreements

Foto: ACCA

We propose the signing of agreements between OEFA and the Amazonian regional governments, accompanied by technical support and technological equipment for real-time monitoring of operations in remote areas.

Furthermore, following the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines, the formation of specialized multidisciplinary teams to support field supervision is recommended, helping to close capacity gaps and ensure the effectiveness of environmental monitoring in critical territories.

 

 

 

 

 

 

5. Promote clean technologies and ban the use of mercury by 2030.

Foto: ACCA

In compliance with the Minamata Convention, Peru must adopt a policy to phase out mercury in gold mining.

To this end, it is recommended that miners be facilitated access to clean technologies through loans, subsidies, or tax benefits, ensuring safer processes for the environment and public health, so that the technological transition increases gold recovery and reduces impacts on rivers and local communities.

However, this policy must be accompanied by specific goals for the protection of forest resources, as well as stricter sanctions for those who continue to use mercury and generate deforestation, thus ensuring true environmental and public health protection. Furthermore, these goals must be expressly incorporated into the Minamata Convention’s National Action Plan, ensuring its effective and coordinated implementation throughout the country.

 

Methodology

The identification of gold mining deforestation in Peru was based on the visual interpretation of high- and very high-resolution satellite imagery available on Planet, Maxar, and Google Earth Pro for the regions of Amazonas, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huánuco, Loreto, Pasco, Puno, and Ucayali. We conducted a preliminary review of maps and platforms related to mining detection in Peru (the Early Detection and Environmental Monitoring System of the Peruvian Ministry of the Environment, Amazon Mining Watch, and Mapbiomas Perú) to locate potential mining areas. In addition, we compiled reports and newspaper articles related to gold mining in different regions of the country  to identify mining areas, as well as direct communications from representatives of different institutions regarding signs of mining activity at the local level. Based on these preliminary processes, we identified gold mining deforestation using satellite imagery. Additionally, we conducted monitoring of mining-related deforestation using monthly Planet NICFI mosaics (4.7 m spatial resolution) to track the expansion of mining-related deforestation and identify new nearby mining areas.

The identification of gold mining deforestation in Madre de Dios used historical mining deforestation information generated by the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center (CINCIA) for the years 1984 – 2019, by Mapbiomas Perú for the year 2020, and by Amazon Conservation (ACA) for the period January 2021 – March 2024. Then, we used the LandTrendR algorithm to identify forest loss in monthly mosaics of Planet NICFI for the period April 2024 – July 2025. Subsequently, we conducted a manual review to identify forest loss resulting from gold mining and other causes.

The identification of river-based mining was based on the visual interpretation of very high-resolution satellite imagery available on Planet, Maxar, and Google Earth Pro for various Amazonian rivers and mining areas in Peru. In addition, confidential reports and direct communications from various institutions regarding the presence of mining infrastructure in Amazonian rivers were included.

 

References

Arana Cardó, M. (2024). Minería ilegal en la Amazonía peruana: Informe sobre las actividades mineras en las regiones amazónicas de Loreto, San Martín, Amazonas, Ucayali, Madre de Dios y Huánuco. Fundación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sostenible Perú (FCDS). https://fcds.org.pe/wpcontent/uploads/2024/07/Resumen_Ejecutivo_informe_mineria_compressed-1.pdf

Conservación Amazónica (ACCA), Proyecto Prevenir – USAID. (2022). Estimación de la población minera informal e ilegal en el departamento de Madre de Dios, a partir del uso de imágenes satelitales sub métricas. https://repositorio.profonanpe.org.pe/handle/20.500.14150/2744

Delfino, E. (20 de julio de 2025). Minería ilegal en Perú: “Hay una presión internacional por el oro y los principales países consumidores no realizan una debida diligencia respecto al origen” | ENTREVISTA. Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/2025/07/mineria-ilegal-peru-oro-amazonia-contaminacion/

OCDE (2016). OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas: Third Edition. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252479-en.

Vadillo Vila, J. (2022). La minería ilegal y su impacto en tiempos de pandemia. Diario El Peruano. https://elperuano.pe/noticia/170967-la-mineria-ilegal-hoy

Zapata Perez, M., Arana Cardo, M., Ramires Valle, D., Castro Sánchez-Moreno, M., Garay Tapia, K., Rivadeneyra Tello, G., Vega Ruiz, C. y Cabanillas Vasquez, F. (2025). 10 propuestas para la formalización efectiva de la pequeña minería y minería artesanal. Observatorio de Minería Ilegal. https://www.observatoriomineriailegal.org.pe/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/10_propuestas_ley_MAPE_020525.pdf

Citation

Pacsi R, Novoa S, Yupanqui O, Quispe M, La Torre S, Balbuena H, Huamán B, Valdivia G, Castañeda C, Soria M, Finer M, Santana A (2025) Current situation of gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 233.

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon, through a strategic collaboration between Amazon Conservation and Conservación Amazónica – Peru (ACCA), with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

​MAAP #230: Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon, Central Sector – Napo Province

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map 1. Mining deforestation in Ecuador. Data: Amazon Mining Watch (AMW), RAISG

This is the second in a series of reports detailing the expansion of gold mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

In the first report (MAAP #227), we analyzed mining expansion in the northern sector, around the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, near the Colombian border.

In this current report, we focus on mining deforestation in the central sector, specifically in the Napo province, part of one of Ecuador’s main water systems.

Base Map 1 indicates these two areas in relation to the most recent mining detection data from Amazon Mining Watch (AMW), highlighting the most recent mining deforestation (2019-2024) in red.

Note that within and surrounding the current report focal area (purple circle), there are several Indigenous territories and two key protected areas (Sumaco Napo Galeras National Park and Colonso Chalupas Biological Reserve).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mining in the Napo province

Napo, one of Ecuador’s six Amazonian provinces, is home to valuable Andean-Amazonian watersheds rich in ecosystem services, making it a priority area for biodiversity conservation and sustainable natural resource management. However, its main rivers are threatened by gold mining, the social and ecological consequences of which are profoundly negative.

In a previous report, MAAP #151, we warned about the rapid expansion of gold mining in the Yutzupino sector, on the banks of the Jatunyacu River. This sector has been the target of various control operations, such as the three so-called Manatí operations, and a technical report on the oversight and monitoring of illegal mining presented to Ecuador’s National Assembly in 2022.

In subsequent reports (MAAP #162 and MAAP #184), the area of analysis of mining deforestation in the Napo province was expanded to include the Jatunyacu, Anzu, and Huambuno Rivers.

This current update presents more recent data (2024), incorporating four key case studies: the Jatunyacu, Anzu, Huambuno, and Puni-Cotona-Arajuno Rivers (see Base Map 2).

Gold mining not only poses environmental hazards, such as forest destruction, water pollution, and ecosystem degradation (see Image 1), but also causes social conflicts and disputes with local communities, who depend on the land and natural resources for their livelihoods and quality of life. The appreciation of gold in the international market poses a challenge to the implementation of sustainable economic alternatives such as ecotourism. However, the ecological and cultural importance of these aquatic ecosystems has generated sound conservation proposals, as detailed in MAAP #202.

Image 1. Left: River in Napo province with no impact from mining activities; Right: Impact of mining activities on riparian forests in Napo province. Source: EcoCiencia (2025)

Dynamics of gold mining deforestation

Chart 1. Dynamics of mining activity in the Napo province from 2007 to 2023. Data: MapBiomas Ecuador – EcoCiencia

Chart 1, with biannual data, illustrated the growth of the mining area in Napo province from 2007 to 2023.

During this period, the total area linked to mining exceeded 1,300 hectares (3,200 acres).

The analysis reveals a trend of sustained increase in mining activity over time, with a particularly notable increase starting in 2017.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Case studies

We chose four key case studies to analyze the dynamics of the expansion of mining areas within the Napo province during the period 2017-2024 (see Base Map 2).

Base Map 2. Satellite monitoring area in Napo. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

Cas3 1: ​Jatunyacu​  River

Case 1. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

This case extends along the banks of the Jatunyacu River from the town of El Cando in the west to its confluence with the Anzu River in the Yutzupino sector. It also includes the Yutsupino River, a tributary of the Jatunyacu River, and several sectors located on the outskirts of the urban boundary south of the city of Tena. This has an important connotation, as it shows that mining activities are not only taking place in remote areas, but are also advancing into highly populated areas.

Between January 2017 and December 2022, 126 hectares were affected by mining. During 2023, the impacted area increased by 162 hectares, and in 2024 a further increase of 214 hectares was recorded. In total, from January 2017 to December 2024, the area affected by mining totals 502 hectares, approximately equivalent to 703 professional soccer fields.

Furthermore, we found that some mining activity has been carried out outside the areas authorized by the mining registry, that is, in areas that do not have the corresponding permits for such activity. These areas total 6.62 hectares, representing just 0.01% of the total identified, but are significant due to their unauthorized nature.

Most mining activities are located within concessions registered in the mining registry. However, few concessions have the additional permits required to carry out mining activities. Furthermore, some of these authorized concessions, although they have processed and received additional permits, have been suspended due to non-compliance with the environmental management plan and violations of the current environmental license.

Panel 1. Data: EcoCiencia; Superintendencia de Ordenamiento Territorial; Planet

In order to analyze the details of mining activities in this case study, two areas, indicated as A and B (see Case 1) were selected for further analysis.

In the case of area A, Panel 1 shows the expansion of mining activity between September 2022 (top left panel) and April 2025 (top right panel).

Furthermore, drone photographs from June 2025 reveal additional details, such as mining pits, the removal of vegetation cover, eroded soil, and other effects produced by mining activity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panel 2. Data: EcoCiencia; Planet

For area B, panel 2 shows the opening of 4.43 km of new roads entering the Yutsupino River between 2022 and 2025, which has facilitated access for the opening of new mining fronts, avoiding a police checkpoint at the entrance to the Yutzupino sector in Puerto Napo.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Case 2: ​Anzu​  

Case 2. Datos: Amazon Conservation/MAAP”; EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 2 extends over the Piocullín, Chumbiyacu, Shichuyacu, Ila, Yurasyacu, and Anzu rivers, where 329 hectares were impacted by mining during the period from January 2017 to December 2022.

An additional 63 hectares were impacted in 2023, and 243 hectates in 2024.

In total, 635 hectares in this area were impacted by mining, equivalent to 889 professional soccer fields.

Additionally, mining activity was identified outside the cadastre, corresponding to 94 hectares, representing 15% of the total identified.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Case 3: Huambuno  

Case 3. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

In this case, we conducted an analysis until December 2024 on the situation on the banks of the Huambuno River.

MAAP #184 documented a mining expansion of 238 hectares affected by mining in this area from May 2017 to January 2023.

In this new analysis, an increase of 124 hectares was identified for the year 2023 and an increase of 130 hectares for the year 2024.

This adds up to a total of 492 hectares (equivalent to 689 soccer fields) affected by mining from May 2017 to December 2024.

Additionally, 115 hectares of mining activity were identified outside the cadastre, representing 23% of the total identified.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Case 4: ​Puní-Cotona-Arajuno​  

Caso 4. Datos: Amazon Conservation/MAAP”; EcoCiencia, Planet

This case study analyzes a sector with little overlap in the mining registry, where unauthorized mining activities grew by approximately 2,700% from the first monitoring period, between 2017 and 2022, to 2024.

Between January 2017 and December 2022, only 4 hectares affected by mining activities were identified in the area.

In 2023, the area affected increased by 26 hectares, and in 2024, an additional increase of 82 hectares was recorded.

In total, during the period analyzed, 112 hectares were impacted by mining activity in the area surrounding the Puní, Cotona, and Arajuno rivers, equivalent to approximately 157 professional soccer fields.

Additionally, 111 hectares of mining activity were identified outside the official land registry, corresponding to 99% of the total identified, reflecting a strong presence of unauthorized mining in this sector.

 

 

 

 Recommendations for public policy:

The recent deforestation caused by mining activities described above highlights key policy needs. Below, we present seven recommendations based on Ecuador’s existing legal framework and related policies for implementation.

1. Strengthen the investigation and control processes of the competent authorities in areas with mining potential that are not registered in the current mining cadastre.

Article 56 of Law 45 provides clear authority for enforcement actions against illegal mineral exploitation, defining such activities as those carried out “without a valid title or the corresponding legal permit.” In this regard, we recommend that the Mining Regulation and Control Agency (ARCOM) establish a comprehensive surveillance system that integrates satellite image analysis with ground verification protocols to identify unauthorized mining activities in real time.

As a first step, and until ARCOM has the full capacity to operate this system, we highlight the importance of close collaboration with civil society organizations that already have this capacity, both in technical terms and in terms of access to high-resolution images, as demonstrated by the methodology used in this report.

 

2. Apply administrative sanctions to mining concession holders who fail to report illegal activities within their authorized area.

Article 57 bis of the Mining Law provides that “the same fines provided for in the previous article shall be applied to holders of mining rights […] who allow illegal mining activities to be carried out by third parties who are not legally authorized to do so or who do not have the respective environmental license […]”.

Since this provision was added to the Mining Law in 2013, it has been used in only two judgments and four administrative resolutions (Note 1) , demonstrating the need for financial, personnel, and technological strengthening of ARCOM.

 

3. Strictly enforce criminal penalties against those who engage in mining activities outside authorized areas, as established in Ecuador’s Comprehensive Organic Criminal Code.

Article 260 of Ecuador’s Comprehensive Organic Criminal Code provides for penalties of up to 10 years for cases of artisanal mining that cause damage to the environment, but only 16 sentences have been handed down since its adoption in 2014 (Note 2). For this provision to be truly dissuasive, the criminal justice system needs specific environmental courts with jurisdiction over mining-related crimes, staffed by judges who are experts in environmental law and mining regulations.

To speed up the processing of court cases, training programs for judges are recommended, focusing on the interpretation of remote sensing evidence in illegal mining cases and the measurement of their impacts on communities and the environment.

 

4. Delimit mining exclusion zones 100 meters wide on each bank of rivers and their tributaries, as established by the Regulations to the Law on Water Resources, Uses, and Exploitation of Water in Ecuador, within the Amazonian Territorial District.

Mining activity carried out less than 100 meters from riverbanks causes the destruction of riparian vegetation, which accelerates erosion and river sedimentation processes. This proximity also favors direct contamination of the waters with heavy metals such as mercury, which are carried into the riverbed and poison aquatic ecosystems, seriously endangering the health of riverside communities.

Mining activities that require the use of water must have an administrative authorization granted by the Single Water Authority, in accordance with Article 26 of the Mining Law. Likewise, Article 18 of the Water Resources, Use and Management Law empowers this authority to delimit water protection zones and areas. In this context, it is recommended that the Ministry of Environment, Water and Ecological Transition declare all areas located less than 100 meters from each riverbank as mining exclusion zones.

 

5. Establish an environmental recategorization that requires an environmental licensing process, including an environmental impact study and a public participation process, for the opening of new roads longer than 1 kilometer within the Amazon Territorial District.

This measure is crucial because the current regulations, which require licensing for roads longer than 3 km according to Article 174 of the Organic Code of the Environment (COA), are insufficient for the Amazonian ecosystem. Experience has shown that this situation is increasingly being exploited to expand road access to areas of interest for illegal mining by adding successive sections of less than 3 km that do not require environmental licenses or permits.

This practice facilitates the expansion of illegal activities and promotes deforestation in sensitive areas. This adjustment would require an EIA to be carried out and would comply with the State’s obligation to prevent and analyze damage before it occurs, as required by Article 179 of the COA for medium- and high-impact works. Second, and more importantly, it guarantees the fundamental right to community consultation stipulated in Article 398 of the Constitution, ensuring that local communities are heard before authorizing projects with the potential to affect their environment.

 

6. Request that decentralized autonomous governments include mandatory water protection zones and ecological easements in their Territorial Development and Land Use Plans (PDyOT) and Land Use and Management Plans (PUGS).

The Ecuadorian legal framework establishes clear coordination between local and national planning. The Organic Code of Territorial Organization, Autonomy, and Decentralization establishes, in Article 296, that PDyOTs must be aligned with national policies and plans, including the guidelines issued by the Single Water Authority. In conjunction with Article 42 of the Organic Law on Water Resources, Use and Management, it is essential that national water planning guidelines are observed in development planning at all jurisdictional levels.

Therefore, Decentralized Autonomous Governments (GADs) must establish in their PDyOTs and PUGS the protection of water resources in the territory, ensuring compliance with nationally established protection zones and ecological easements, observing the principle of complementarity. In this regard, we recommend that the Superintendency of Land Use Planning, within the scope of its powers and through its Annual Monitoring and Control Plans (PAV and PAC), incorporate as a priority line of verification: “The technical and legal review of the recognition and delimitation of water protection zones and ecological easements in the PDyOT and PUGS of municipal and metropolitan GADs, ensuring their consistency with current environmental regulations and the principles of sustainability.”

 

7. Create a binding protection system and management categories for rivers with exceptional natural and cultural values, based on the application of water protection zones with a participatory management plan.

Article 29, paragraph 2, subparagraph “e” of the Organic Law on Water Resources, Use, and Management establishes that water resource planning must include a description of water and water protection areas in each basin and the means of safeguarding them. Our recommendation is that these means of safeguarding be established in specific and detailed technical management plans.

By virtue of Article 398 and Article 57, paragraph 7 of the Ecuadorian Constitution, any state decision or authorization that may affect the environment must be consulted with the community. Therefore, the creation of a Management Plan through a participatory process is an important mechanism that allows for compliance with the obligation to protect rivers and with the fundamental right of citizens to participate in decisions that affect their environment.

 

Notes

1) https://vlex.ec/vid/ley-45-ley-mineria-643461381

2) A search was conducted in the open databases of the Judicial Council of Ecuador for case law citing Article 260 of the Comprehensive Organic Criminal Code (COIP), finding six judgments handed down since 2014: No. 17204201601552, No. 05283201600242, No. 07712201500096, No. 103342201900015, No. 09286201602579, and No. 0165820150034. Ten additional judgments were also identified in the case law database of the National Council of Justice of Ecuador: No. 1021201801851, No. 10332201800455, No. 10281201801658, No. 11314201700278, No. 05283201901606, No. 10281201800489, No. 10281201800483, No. 1028201800365, No. 10281201801640 and No. 10281201800253.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Ecuadorian Rivers Institute for its contributions to this report.

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the organizations Fundación EcoCiencia and Amazon Conservation, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

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MAAP #228: Illegal Gold Mining in the Puré and Cotuhé Rivers in the Colombian Amazon

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Illegal gold mining in the Puré & Cotuhé Rivers, Colombian Amazon. Data: ACA/MAAP, FCDS, RAISG

Illegal gold mining poses a challenge to environmental sustainability, governance, and security for all nine countries of the Amazon. The high price of gold on the international market has fueled the growth of this activity, combined with other factors such as the scarcity of economic alternatives, the presence of illicit groups, corruption, and a lack of effective government action.

In the Amazon, illegal mining has generated massive deforestation (MAAP #226), contamination of water sources due to the use of mercury, and expansion of illicit economies, with gold becoming a key source of financing for organized armed groups (Note 1).

In a series of reports, MAAP has detailed and illustrated cases of illegal mining in many parts of the Amazon, including Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, and Venezuela. These reports include both forest-based mining causing deforestation, and river-based mining causing mercury contamination.

In this report, we focus on river-based mining in the northwestern Amazon, specifically the triple border region between Colombia, Brazil, and Peru (see Base Map).In this area, illegal mining activities impact several rivers that connect these countries: the Puré, Cotuhé, Caquetá, Amazonas, Apaporis, and Putumayo Rivers in Colombia; the Napo, Curaray, Putumayo, Yaguas, Nanay, and Mazán Rivers in Peru; and the Puruí and Japurá Rivers in Brazil.

Although it doesn’t cause deforestation, this type of mining activity directly impacts not only the rivers but all ecosystems interconnected with them, due to the use of dredges and mercury. This mercury contamination spreads through the food chain, accumulating in species consumed by the local population, harming their health. This type of mining can extract up to three kilograms of gold per month, equivalent to approximately $275,000 per month (Notes 2-3).

Specifically, this report examines the current situation of the Puré and Cotuhé Rivers, in their southeastern reaches, located in the Colombian Amazon (see Base Map). These rivers are located in the department of Amazonas, along the borders of Brazil and Peru.

In both cases, we analyzed these river stretches using a combination of very high-resolution satellite images (0.5 meters, Planet/Skysat) and overflight photographs (courtesy of the Amazon Alliance for the Reduction of the Impacts of Gold Mining – AARIMO in Spanish).

This report was produced in collaboration with our Colombian partner, the Foundation for Conservation and Sustainable Development (FCDS), and with financial support from the Overbrook Foundation and Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation..

Detection of mining activity in the Puré River

The Puré River flows through the core of the Río Puré National Park in the southeastern Colombian Amazon (see Base Map).

This protected area, in addition to its extraordinary biodiversity and high carbon levels, also plays a role as a food source for Indigenous communities and is recognized as home to Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation, including the Yurí–Passé, whose high vulnerability has been widely recognized internationally.

This protected area faces pressures and threats primarily associated with alluvial mining activities, which are increasingly occurring along the Puré River from the border with Brazil. The impacts of this activity include mercury contamination of water and fish, destruction of aquatic habitats and ecosystems, hunting, logging, and impacts on food security and the environment where communities in voluntary isolation live.

Despite interventions by the Colombian government and ongoing monitoring by organizations, mining activities continue, with increased intensity during periods when the river flow is lowest.Analyzing a Skysat image from November 2024, we found 29 dredges along the Puré River (see red dots in Figure 1). Figures 1J-L show examples of these findings. In other Skysat images from March and April 2025, we identified 27 dredges (see yellow dots in Figure 1).

Figure 1. Detected gold mining activity in the Puré River. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, FCDS.

Overflight photos – Puré River

The following photos (corresponding to points 1-3 in Figure 1) were taken during a low-altitude overflight conducted by FCDS in September 2024. This additional resolution provides additional information on mining methods and their impacts (AARIMO 2024).

Punto 1

Overflight photo, Point 1. Green-roof dredger, with Starlink. Data: FCDS.
Overflight photo, Point 1. Green-roof dredger, with Starlink. Data: FCDS.

Punto 2

Overflight photo, Point 2. Three dredgers with barges and skidders. Data: FCDS.
Overflight photo, Point 2. Three dredgers with barges and skidders. Data: FCDS.

Punto 3

Overflight photo. Point 3. Dredges and heavy machinery. Data: FCDS.

Detection of mining activity in the Cotuhé River

The Cotuhé River borders the north of Amacayacu National Park (see Base Map) and passes through the Cotuhé Putumayo Indigenous Reserve (see Figure 2), in the southeast Colombian Amazon, on the borders with Peru and Brazil.

Analyzing a Skysat image from November 30, 2024, we found five dredges (Figure 2). Figures 2A-D show examples of these findings.

Figure 2. Detected gold mining activity in the Cotuhé River. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, FCDS.

Overflight photos – Cotuhé River

The following photos (corresponding to points 4-5 in Figure 2) were taken from a low-altitude overflight conducted by FCDS in September 2024 (AARIMO 2024).

Punto 4

Overflight photo, Point 4. Dredger in operation with Starlink antenna. Data: FCDS
Overflight photo, Point 5. Dredger. Data: FCDS

Policy Implications

The illegal river-based mining analyzed here occurs within two important Colombian protected areas, Río Puré and Amacayacu National Parks. In these areas, no mining operations of any kind are permitted, due to impacts on biodiversity, Indigenous communities in voluntary isolation, and local Indigenous communities that depend on natural resources for their survival, putting their food security at risk.

An important factor that has intensified mining activity in the area has been the significant upward trend in the price of gold. In January 2008, an ounce of gold was quoted at around $812. By July 2024, this value reached $2,514, representing an increase of more than 200% over that period. Furthermore, recent changes in tariff policies have further boosted demand for gold (GoldMarket, 2024). Consequently, in February 2025, gold reached new highs, approaching $3,000 per ounce, substantially driven by central bank purchases (El País, 2025a).

Although Law 1658 of 2013 initiated the ban on the use of mercury in Colombia, it was not fully implemented until 2023. This ban includes the import and export of mercury to and from Colombia. However, despite the ban in Colombia, this element is used in considerable quantities for illegal gold mining in border areas, such as those observed in this report. Thus, Colombia, Brazil, and Peru face a significant challenge in complying with the law, as controls on the sale and use of this element in border areas are very complex due to the fact that these are difficult-to-access areas.

In general, a correlation has been observed between the granting of mining concessions in cross-border areas and the increase in informal mining in the Amazon subregion. For example, in the case of the Río Puré National Park, the presence of mining dredges has increased within protected areas. These dredges enter the Puré River from the Brazilian side, where therea area a large number of formal mining concessions.

A key challenge is to strengthen operational capacities and coordinate control actions among the three border countries (Colombia, Peru, and Brazil) to combat environmental crimes associated with illegal mining. These operations must be effective and not result in actions that harm the local communities and Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation in the region, as this exacerbates the internal conflict in Colombia.

Notes

1 Ministerio de Minas y Energía, 2023

2 Ebus & Pedroso, 2023

3 Bullion Vault, 2025

Acknowledgments

This report was produced in collaboration with our Colombian partner, the Foundation for Conservation and Sustainable Development (FCDS), and with financial support from the Overbrook Foundation and Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

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MAAP #227: Gold Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon – Northern Sector

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Gold mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Data: Amazon Mining Watch, RAISG

In a recent report (MAAP #226), we presented data from Amazon Mining Watch (AMW), a collaboration between Amazon Conservation, Earth Genome, and the Pulitzer Center. This public resource uses AI (artificial intelligence) to detect gold mining deforestation across the Amazon, starting in 2018.

The Base Map illustrates the current data, highlighting the most recent mining deforestation (2019–2024) in red. Note the concentration of new mining activity in the western part of the Ecuadorian Amazon, along the transition with the Andes Mountains.

This is the first in a series of reports detailing gold mining in these areas. In this report, we focus on deforestation due to mining in the northern sector, around the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve.

The Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve was one of the best-preserved protected areas in the province of Sucumbios until approximately 2020. In recent years, a rapid expansion of gold mining has been unfolding in the buffer zone of the southeastern edge of the reserve.

The vast majority of this activity has been identified as illegal mining, as it occurs outside designated mining areas, or is carried out in concession areas without proper authorization. The expansion of illegal gold mining in this sector is promoted by criminal groups located on the border with Colombia (Note 1).

 

 

Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon – Northern Sector

Figure 1. Mining to the southeast of Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP; MAATE; NCI, Planet.

In a previous report, MAAP #186 analyzed mining activity just outside Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, located in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon, in the province of Sucumbíos. Here, we update and expand this analysis around the reserve.

This expanded analysis incorporates additional conservation areas, such as El Bermejo Protective Forest and the Cascales Municipal Conservation and Sustainable Use Area (see Figure 1), as well as Shuar and Kichwa Indigenous territories (Figure 2).

Due to the development of this mining activity in several different land designation areas, it is worth emphasizing that there are two major factors determining its legality or illegality in Ecuador:

1) Express prohibition provided for by the Constitution or law, as in the case of metal mining activities in protected areas (Article 407 of the Constitution) or the prohibition on the use of mercury in mining operations (Article 86.1 of the Mining Law).

2) Lack of authorization, such as conducting exploration and exploitation activities without the corresponding permits.

In terms of social impact, Mongabay Latam (2023) contextualizes this area (References 1-2): “Indigenous communities and social and environmental organizations that work in the territory cannot openly denounce what is happening in this border area with Colombia, due to the presence of armed groups and the serious security problems that exist there.”

Considering that the largest area of ​​gold mining deforestation is located in the Cascales Conservation and Sustainable Use Area (Figure 1), it is important to note that this type of designation (Conservation and Sustainable Use Areas) are zones created by decentralized autonomous local governments, communities, or private landowners to conserve biodiversity and develop sustainable activities that maintain ecosystem services beneficial to human life. Activities such as conservation, research, restoration, education, culture, recreation, and tourism, as well as sustainable subsistence production activities, can be carried out in these protected areas. The declaration of these protected areas does not modify mining concessions granted by the National Environmental Authority that remain in force and may be renewed, as long as they are compatible with sustainable use.

Regarding El Bermejo Protective Forest, this designation type (Protective Forest) is natural vegetation formations (trees, shrubs, or herbs) found in areas with rugged topography, headwaters of watersheds, or zones unsuitable for agriculture or livestock farming. Their primary function is to conserve water, soil, flora, and wildlife. Activities permitted in these forests, with authorization from the National Environmental Authority, include the promotion of wildlife, the execution of priority public works, sustainable forest management, and scientific, tourism, and recreational activities.

Indigenous Territories

Figure 2. Gold mining deforestation in Indigenous territories (Shuar & Kichwa). Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

In addition to  the Cofán Bermejo Indigenous Territory, which shares boundaries with the Ecological Reserve of the same name, gold mining deforestation threatens six surrounding Shuar and Kichwa Indigenous territories (Figure 2).

Note that these territories overlap with the conservation areas noted above.

In total, 68% of the mining deforestation detected in the study area was identified as occurring within these Indigenous territories.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Increase in Gold Mining Deforestation 2020 – 2024

Using satellite imagery (Planet), we estimated the annual expansion of gold mining deforestation in this area between 2020 and 2024. The total forest area affected by mining by the end of 2024 is approximately 754 hectares, equivalent to 1,863 acres.

The vast majority of this mining occurred in the Cascales Conservation and Sustainable Use Area or Indigenous territories.

The analysis shows that the largest increase occurred in 2024, with an expansion of 189.62 hectares. Overall, we documented a trend of continual accumulated expansion of gold mining deforestation across the region (Graph 1).

Graph 1. Mining activity 2017-2024 outside the Ecological Reserve Cofanes – Bermejo. Data: ACA/MAAP; Fundación EcoCiencia.

Mining Concessions

Figure 3. Overlay of mining activities with the mining cadastre. Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia; ARCOM; Planet

By adding the mining land designations, we determined that 59% of the mining deforestation (444 hectares) occured outside legal mining areas (Figure 3).

The Ecuadorian government, through the Ministry of Energy and Mines, grants mining rights for the exploitation of mineral resources in each of its phases (mining activity is divided into an exploration and development phase).

The exploration phase is further divided into three periods: initial exploration, advanced exploration, and economic evaluation.

Carrying out development activities prior to the granting of the right is illegal and may incur administrative or criminal sanctions.

 

 

 

 

 

Case Studies

We selected three case studies within the monitoring area to illustrate the rapid expansion of mining activity (see Insets A-C in Figure 3). The comparative panels below demonstrate the expansion of mining activity between May 2024 (left panel) and December 2024 (right panel) in each case.

Zoom A.

Panel A shows mining deforestation taking place outside designated mining concession areas. Moreover, this activity is occurring within a Shuar Indigenous territory (Taruka Territory).

Panel Zoom A. Mining deforestation in Shuar Indigenous territory. Data: ARCOM (2025); Planet

Zoom B.

In Panel B, we identified 61.4 hectares of mining activity within the El Tuerto mining concession. However, this concession is currently in the initial exploration phase, meaning it has not yet been authorized for development.

Panel Zoom B. Data: ARCOM (2025); Planet

Zoom C.

In Panel C, we recorded 19.65 hectares of mining activity within the El Porvenir mining concession. It is also currently in the exploration phase, with no authorization for development. Furthermore, this activity takes place within the ancestral territory of the Puma Kucha Commune (Kichwa Indigenous territory).

Panel Zoom C. Data: ARCOM (2025); Planet

Policy Implications

The recent gold mining deforestation described above highlights several key policy needs:

  • Regulate public investment to ensure that the various conservation entities recognized by the national government have the necessary resources for oversight within their jurisdiction.
  • Strengthen investigation and oversight processes in institutions responsible for ensuring environmentally responsible mining activities.

Methodology

In addition to Amazon Mining Watch to create the Base Map, we used LandTrendR, a temporal segmentation algorithm that identifies changes in pixel values ​​over time, to detect forest loss at the edge of the Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve between August 2017 and December 2024 using the Google Earth Engine platform. Importantly, this method was originally designed for moderate-resolution (30-meter) Landsat imagery (Reference 3), but was adapted for higher spatial resolution (4.7-meter) NICFI-Planet monthly mosaics (Reference 4).

References

  1. Antonio José Paz Cardona. (2023, 7 junio). Ecuador: minería ilegal sigue avanzando hacia el interior de la Reserva Ecológica Cofán Bermejo. Noticias Ambientales. https://es.mongabay.com/2023/06/mineria-ilegal-reserva-ecologica-cofan-bermejo-ecuador/
  2. Amazon Watch report ‘Oro, bandas y gobernanza: La crisis que enfrentan las comunidades indígenas amazónicas de Ecuador’ 
  3. Kennedy, R.E., Yang, Z., Gorelick, N., Braaten, J., Cavalcante, L., Cohen, W.B., Healey, S. (2018). Implementation of the LandTrendr Algorithm on Google Earth Engine. Remote Sensing. 10, 691.
  4. Erik Lindquist, FAO, 2021

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

MAAP #226: AI to detect Amazon gold mining deforestation – 2024 update

Posted on by Matt Finer
Intro Image. Amazon Mining Watch interactive map.

As gold prices continue to increase, small-scale gold mining activity also continues to be one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon. 

It often targets remote areas, thus impacting carbon-rich primary forests. Moreover, in many cases, we presume that this mining is illegal based on its location within conservation areas (such as protected areas and Indigenous territories) and outside mining concessions.

Given the vastness of the Amazon, however, it has been a challenge to accurately and regularly monitor mining deforestation across all nine countries of the biome, in order to better inform related policies in a timely manner.

In a previous report (MAAP #212) we presented the initial results of the new AI-based dashboard (known as Amazon Mining Watch) designed to address the issue of gold mining and related policy implications. Amazon Mining Watch (AMW) is a partnership between Earth Genome, the Pulitzer Center’s Rainforest Investigations Network, and Amazon Conservation.

This online tool (see Intro Image) analyzes satellite imagery archives to estimate annual mining deforestation footprints across the entire Amazon, from 2018 to 2024 (Note 1). Although the data is not designed for precise area measurements,  it can be used to give timely estimates needed for management and conservation purposes.  

For example, the cumulative data can be used to estimate and visualize the overall Amazon-wide mining deforestation footprint, and the annual data can be used to identify trends and emerging new mining areas. The algorithm is based on 10-meter resolution imagery from the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2 satellite and produces 480-meter resolution pixelated mining deforestation alerts.

The only tool of this kind to be truly regional (Amazon-wide) in coverage, AMW can also help foster regional cooperation, in particular in transfrontier areas where a lack of interoperability between official monitoring systems might hamper interventions.

The Amazon Mining Watch partnership is currently working to enhance the functionality and conservation impact of the dashboard, AMW will be a one-stop shop platform including real-time visualization of: 1) AI-based detection of mining deforestation across all nine Amazonian countries, with quarterly updates; 2) Hotspots of urgent mining cases, including river-based mining; and 3) the socio-environmental costs of illegal gold mining with the Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF) Mining Impacts Calculator.

Here, we present an update focused on the newly added 2024 data and its context within the cumulative dataset (since 2018).

MAJOR FINDINGS

In  the following sections, we highlight several major findings:

  • Gold mining is actively causing deforestation in all nine countries of the Amazon. This impact is concentrated in three major areas: southeast Brazil, the Guyana Shield, and southern Peru. In addition, mining in Ecuador is escalating.
  • The cumulative mining deforestation footprint in 2024 was over 2 million hectares (nearly 5 million acres) and has increased by over 50% in the past six years.
  • Over half of all Amazon mining deforestation occurred in Brazil, followed by Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, and Peru.
  • While the cumulative footprint continues to grow, the rate of increase slowed in 2023 and 2024 after peaking in 2022, likely due to increased enforcement in Brazil.
  • Over one-third of the mining deforestation has occurred within protected areas and Indigenous territories, where much of it is likely illegal. We highlight the most impacted areas.
  • These results have important policy implications.
Base Map. Mining deforestation footprints, 2018-2024. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Amazon & National Scale Patterns

The Base Map presents the gold mining footprint across the Amazon, as detected by the AMW algorithm. This data serves as our estimate of gold mining deforestation.

Yellow indicates the accumulated mining deforestation footprint for the years 2018- 2023; that is, all areas that the algorithm classified as a mining site vs other types of terrain, such as forest or agriculture. Red indicates the new mining areas detected in 2024.

Three major Amazon gold mining regions stand out: southeast Brazil (between the Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantis Rivers), Guyana Shield (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana), and southern Peru (Madre de Dios).  In addition, Ecuador has emerged as an important mining deforestation front.

 

 

 

 

Graph 1. Amazon mining deforestation footprint. Data: AMW

Graph 1 quantifies the spatial data detected by the AMW algorithm. 

The cumulative mining deforestation footprint in 2024 was 2.02 million hectares (4.99 million acres)

For context, the initial mining deforestation footprint was around 970,000 hectares in 2018, the first year of Amazon Mining Watch data.

Between 2019 and 2024, we estimate that the gold mining deforestation grew by 1.06 million hectares (2.61 million acres).

Thus, over half (52.3%) of the cumulative footprint has occurred in just the past six years.

Note that while the cumulative footprint continues to grow, the rate of increase slowed in 2023 and 2024 after peaking in 2022.

 

 

 

Graph 2 shows that, of the total accumulated mining (2.02 million hectares), over half has occurred in Brazil (55.3%), followed by Guyana (15.4%), Suriname (12.4%), Venezuela (7.3%), and Peru (7.0%).

Graph 2. Gold mining deforestation across the Amazon, by country. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP

Graph 3 digs deeper into the AMW data, revealing additional trends between years. This data highlights the annual changes in detected mining deforestation. Note the trend across the entire Amazon at the top in green for overall context, followed by each country. Note that Brazil (orange line) accounts for much of the annual mining (over 50%).

In 2024, we documented the new gold mining deforestation of 111,603 hectares (275,777 acres). This total represents a decrease of 35% relative to the previous year 2023 and 45% relative to the peak year 2022.

The countries with the highest levels of new gold mining deforestation in 2024 were 1) Brazil (57,240 ha), 2) Guyana (19,372 ha), 3) Suriname (15,323 ha), 4) Venezuela (9,531 ha), and 5) Peru (6,020 ha). However, all five of these countries saw a major decrease in 2024, between 33% (Brazil and Suriname) and 46% (Peru).

Graph 3. Annual changes in new mining deforestation. Data: AMW
Figure 1. Protected areas & Indigenous territories impacted by mining deforestation. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Protected Areas & Indigenous Territories

We estimate that 36% of the accumulated mining deforestation in 2024 (over 725,000 hectares) occurred within protected areas and Indigenous territories (Figure 1; Note 2), where much of it is likely illegal.

Notably, the vast majority of this overall mining deforestation in protected areas and Indigenous territories has occurred in Brazil (88%).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2a. Top 10 impacted protected areas & Indigenous territories. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Figure 2a illustrates the top ten for both protected areas and Indigenous territories, in terms of both accumulated mining deforestation footprint and new mining deforestation in 2024. Figures 2b-d show zooms of the three main mining areas: southeast Brazil (2b), Guyana Shield (2c), and southern Peru (2d).

The top nine most impacted protected areas (in terms of accumulated footprint) are all in Brazil, led by Tapajós Environmental Protection Area. This area has lost over 377,000 hectares, followed by Amanã and Crepori National Forests, Rio Novo National Park, Urupadi, Jamanxim, and Itaituba National Forests, Jamanxim National Park, and Altamira National Forest. The top ten is rounded out by Yapacana National Park in Venezuela.

The three most impacted Indigenous territories are also in Brazil: Kayapó, Mundurucu, and Yanomami. Together, these three territories had a mining footprint of nearly 120,000 hectares. Fourth on the list is Ikabaru in Venezuela, followed by three in southern Peru (San Jose de Karene, Barranco Chico, and Kotsimba) with mining impact of over 17,000 hectares. Rounding out the top ten are Sai Cinza and Trincheira/Bacajá in Brazil, and San Jacinto in Peru.

We also estimate the expansion of over 38,000 hectares of new mining deforestation in protected areas and Indigenous territories in 2024. The protected area with the highest levels of new mining deforestation in 2024 was Tapajós Environmental Protection Area (nearly 19,000 hectares), followed by Amanã and Urupadi National Forests in Brazil, Rio Novo and Jamanxim National Parks in Brazil, Crepori National Forest in Brazil, Campos Amazonicos National Park in Brazil, Yapacan National Park in Venezuela, Guyane Regional Park in French Guiana, and Brownsberg Nature Reserve in Suriname.

Finally, the Indigenous territory with the highest levels of new mining deforestation in 2024 was Kayapó in Brazil (over 2,100 hectares), followed by Ikabaru in Venezuela, Yanomami, Aripuana, and Mundurucu in Brazil, Baramita in Guyana, Kuruáya in Brazil, Isseneru and Kamarang Keng, San Jose de Karene in Peu. It is worth noting that Kayapó, Mundurucu, and Yanomami territories in Brazil all experienced declines in the mining deforestation rate in 2024. For example, Yanomami went from its peak in 2021 to the lowest on record in 2024.

Most impacted areas in eastern Brazilian Amazon

Figure 2b. Most impacted areas in eastern Brazilian Amazon. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Most impacted areas in the Guyana Shield

Figure 2c. Most impacted areas in the Guyana Shield. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Most impacted areas in the southern Peruvian Amazon

Figure 2d. Most impacted areas in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Conclusion & Policy Implications

Despite a recent downward trend in the rate of gold mining deforestation, the cumulative gold mining deforestation footprint continues to grow across the Amazon.

Our analysis shows that over one-third of this mining occurs within protected areas and Indigenous territories, the vast majority in Brazil. However, since the return of the Lula administration in 2023, Brazil has been ramping up enforcement efforts. This has contributed to the rapid decrease in area lost to mining across the Amazon, given Brazil’s outsized contribution to regional figures. This highlights again the importance of protected areas and Indigenous territories as a crucial policy instrument for the protection of the region’s ecosystems.

Although advances have been made in reducing illegal mining from protected areas in southern Peru, it continues to impact several Indigenous territories (MAAP #208, MAAP #196), particularly those surrounding the government-designated Mining Corridor. In fact, the most affected Indigenous territory in Peru, San Jose de Karene, has already lost over a third of its total area to illegal gold mining.  These territories are part of a regional organization known as FENAMAD, which has been supporting legal actions to help the government make decisions for a rapid response to illicit activities (such as illegal mining) that affect indigenous territories. This process led to five government-led operations between 2022 and 2024, in three communities: Barranco Chico, Kotsimba and San José de Karene (MAAP #208).

In Ecuador, mining deforestation continues to threaten numerous sites, including protected areas and Indigenous territories, along the Andes-Amazon transition zone (MAAP #206, MAAP #221, MAAP #219). An upcoming series of reports will detail these threats.

AMW is an emerging and powerful new tool, but it does have some caveats. One is that any mining activity less than 500 square meters may not be accurately detected. For example, we have been monitoring small-scale mining in several protected areas, such as Madidi National Park in Bolivia and Puinawai National Park in Colombia, that are not yet detected by the algorithm. In these cases, direct real-time monitoring with satellites is still needed. These areas will soon be added to the AMW as mining “Hotspots” (MAAP#197).

This is also the case for river-based mining that does not cause a large footprint on the ground. Imagery with very high resolution has revealed active river barge mining in northern Peru (MAAP #189) and along the Colombia/Brazil border (MAAP#197). These areas will also soon be added to the AMW as mining “Hotspots.”

Gold mining in the Amazon is certain to stay a major issue in the coming years as gold prices continue to skyrocket, reaching over $3,000 an ounce in April 2025, driven by global economic uncertainty. While there are encouraging signs of effective enforcement in Brazil, governments here and across the region will have to compete with this rising financial incentive for mining activities.

Tools such as the Amazon Mining Watch, which will eventually publish quarterly updates of newly detected mining deforestation areas, can help governments, civil society, and local community defenders spot new fronts of gold mining and take action in near real-time. In a feature developed by Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF), it will also evaluate the economic costs of socio-environmental mining damages necessary for communities and managers to declare punitive damages.

The only dashboard of this kind to be fully regional in coverage, the AMW can also help foster regional cooperation, in particular in transfrontier areas where a lack of interoperability between official monitoring systems might hamper interventions that are aimed at combating a phenomenon that is linked to other nature crimes and is mostly controlled by international organized crime. 

In the coming years, the MAAP and AMW teams will continue to publish both quarterly and annual reports of the dynamic mining situation in each country and across the Amazon, in addition to confidential reports directly to governments and community leaders on the most urgent cases.

Notes

1. Note that in this report, we focus on mining activity that causes deforestation. The vast majority is artisanal or small-scale gold mining, but other mining activities have also been detected, such as iron, aluminum, and nickel mines in Brazil and Colombia. Additional critical gold mining areas in rivers that are not yet causing deforestation (such as in northern Peru, southeast Colombia, and northwest Brazil; see MAAP #197), are not included in this report. This information is not yet displayed in Amazon Mining Watch, but future updates will include river-based mining hotspots. 

2. Our data source for protected areas and Indigenous territories is from RAISG (Amazon Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information), a consortium of civil society organizations in the Amazon countries. This source (accessed in December 2024) contains spatial data for 5,943 protected areas and Indigenous territories, covering 414.9 million hectares across the Amazon.

Acknowledgments

We thank colleagues from partner organizations around the Amazon for helpful comments on the report, including: Earth Genome, Conservación Amazónica (ACCA & ACEAA) & Federación Nativa del Río Madre de Dios y Afluentes (FENAMAD), Fundación EcoCiencia, Fundación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sostenible (FCDS), and Instituto Centro de Vida (ICV) & Instituto Socioambiental (ISA).

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

MAAP #221: Illegal mining in protected areas of the Ecuadorian Amazon

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Protected areas in the Ecuadorian Amazon threatened by mining.

In a series of previous reports, we warned about the emergence and expansion of mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon (MAAP #151, MAAP 182, MAAP #219).

Illegal mining in Ecuador tends to operate in remote areas, such as protected areas.

Furthermore, this activity’s proximity to Colombia and Peru facilitates cross-border flows essential for the gold trade.

Here, we analyze the four protected areas in the Ecuadorian Amazon that are currently threatened by mining activities: Podocarpus and Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Parks, Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, and El Zarza Wildlife Refuge (see Base Map).

The mining is occurring deep within Podocarpus National Park.

In the other three areas (Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, and El Zarza Wildlife Refuge), unregulated mining activities are expanding in their buffer zones and starting to penetrate their respective boundaries.

Below, we present a concise analysis of these four affected protected areas, featuring high-resolution satellite imagery.

 

 

 

Podocarpus National Park

We analyzed the illegal mining activities along the Loyola River within Podocarpus National Park. We first detected the mining deforestation of 22 hectares in July 2023. By September 2024, this impact had increased to 50 hectares (124 acres), resulting in an illegal expansion of 125% within the park between 2023 and 2024 (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Mining deforestation on the banks of the Loyola River inside the Podocarpus National Park, July 2023 (left panel) vs August 2024 (right panel).
Figure 1a. Skysat image of mining deforestation of the Loyola River within the Podocarpus National Park,

In addition, we used a very high-resolution image (SkySat, 0.50 meters) from March 25, 2024, to visualize the pattern and impact of the illegal mining in greater detail.

Importantly, we found evidence that the mining activity is changing the course of the Loyola River.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sumaco Napo – Galeras National Park

We have continuously monitored the expansion of illegal mining in the Punino River basin ((MAAP #151, MAAP #219).) and its advance towards Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park. In May 2024, we first detected the penetration of illegal mining across the park’s southeastern boundary.

We estimate the expansion of 142 hectares (350 acres) in the park’s buffer zone, between September 2022 and August 2024. We also just detected the penetration (0.32 hectares) of illegal mining into the park’s boundaries (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Mining deforestation in the Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, September 2022 (left panel) vs August 2024 (right panel).

Cofán Bermejo Ecologial Reserve

In MAAP #186, we showed how mining activities along the Bermeja River threaten the boundaries of the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon. In this area, a total mining advance of 337 hectares (833 acres) was recorded during the period from February 2020 to September 2024, of which it was estimated that 1.05 hectares (2.6 acres) are within the boundary of the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Mining deforestation in the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, Feb 2020 (left panel) vs Sept 2024 (right panel).

El Zarza Wildlife Refuge

We detected mining activities along the Zarza River impacting 33 hectares (82 acres) in the buffer zone of the El Zarza Wildlife Refuge (Figure 4).

Figura 4. Deforestación minera en la zona de amortiguamiento del Refugio de Vida Silvestre el Zarza, septiembre 2022 (panel izq) vs agosto 2024 (panel der).

Acknowledgements

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad).

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MAAP #219: Illegal mining expansion in the Ecuadorian Amazon (Punino area)

Posted on by dcadmin
Base Map. Mining deforestation in the heart of the Ecuadorian Amazon (Punino area). Data: ARCERNNR 2022, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

In a series of previous reports, we warned about the emergence and expansion of illegal mining deforestation in the heart of the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the area surrounding the ​​Punino River, located between the provinces of Napo and Orellana (MAAP #182, MAAP #151).

In the most recent report, we informed that this mining impact had reached 1,000 hectares (MAAP #206).

Here, we provide an update on the growing mining activity in and around the Punino River basin during the first half of 2024.

The Base Map shows an increase of 420 hectares in 2024 (indicated in red), bringing the total impact to 1,422 hectares (3,500 acres) since its inception in 2019 (yellow and red combined). This total is equivalent to more than 2,000 professional soccer fields.

The Base Map also shows that the vast majority (90%) of the mining deforestation is located outside the limits of the areas authorized for such activity (according to the mining registry updated to 2022). In other words, the vast majority of mining is likely illegal.

We emphasize that the mining deforestation has rapidly expanded to enter the limits of two protected areas: Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park and El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area (see Figure 1, below).

In addition, the mining deforestation is actively expanding within the boundaries of Indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality (see Figure 2, below).

Below we illustrate in more detail the rapid increase in mining deforestation, especially in these protected areas and Indigenous territories.

Mining expansion in the Punino area, 2019-2024

Chart 1 illustrates the steadily increasing mining deforestation in the Punino area over the past 5 years. The impact began in 2019, reaching 1,000 hectares by the end of 2023, and more recently reaching 1,422 hectares in June 2024.

Chart 1. Historical deforestation due to mining in the Punino area between November 2019 and June 2024

Expansion of illegal mining in protected areas

Figure 1 shows the expansion of mining deforestation in and around the two protected areas of the Punino zone. Note that mining has recently penetrated the boundaries of both Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (0.32 hectares) and El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area (144 hectares).

Figure 1. Protected areas affected by mining activity between 2019 and 2024 in the Punino area. Data: ARCERNNR 2022, MAATE 2024, NCI 2018, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 2 shows the initial encroachment (0.32 hectares) of mining deforestation in the boundaries of Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park between September 2022 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 2. Mining deforestation within the boundaries of Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, comparing September 2022 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: MAATE 2024, Planet/NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 3 shows the invasion and expansion of deforestation due to mining (144 hectares) within the boundaries of El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area between September 2023 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 3. Mining deforestation within the boundaries of the El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area, comparing September 2023 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: NCI 2018, Planet/NICFI, Ecociencia.

Expansion of illegal mining in indigenous territories

Figure 4 shows the expansion of mining deforestation (300 hectares) in relation to the Indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality in the Punino area.

Figure 4. Indigenous territories affected by mining activity between 2019 and 2024 in the Punino area. Data: RAISG 2023, ARCERNNR 2022, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 5 shows the expansion of deforestation due to mining in the indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality between September 2023 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 5. Mining deforestation within indigenous territory of the Kichwa nationality, comparing September 2023 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: RAISG 2023, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 6 shows the expansion of deforestation due to mining in indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality south of the study area between November 2019 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 6. Mining deforestation within indigenous territory of the Kichwa nationality, comparing November 2019 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: RAISG 2023, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

 

Annex 1

Annex 1 shows the four watersheds impacted by mining activity: the Punino River basin and also the Sardinas River, Lumucha River and Supayacu River basins, which in turn form part of the Coca River macro-water system.

Annex 1. Water systems impacted by mining activity in the Punino area.

 

Annex 2

Annex 2 shows the construction of 91 kilometers of roads due to mining activity.

Annex 2. Construction of access roads associated with mining activity.

Acknowledgements

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad).

MAAP #218: Killing of Environmental Defenders in the Peruvian Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin

 

Peruvian environmental defender Edwin Chota was murdered by illegal loggers in 2014 for attempting to protect his Indigenous community from Exploitation. See Illegal Logging section. Photo: NYT/Tomas Munita.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Amazon Conservation’s MAAP program specializes in reporting on the most urgent deforestation threats facing the Amazon and producing big-picture analyses of key Amazon-wide issues.

This report uniquely presents a view into the complicated but critical issue of murders of environmental defenders, examining the relationship between the location of these killings and deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon to provide a better understanding of the context of their deaths.

Between 2010 and 2022, an estimated 29 Peruvian environmentalists and Indigenous leaders were killed while defending various parts of Peru’s Amazon from invaders seeking to exploit its resources (RAISG 2022).

Importantly, the frequency of these murders has increased in recent years, with nearly half (14 out of 29) occurring since 2020.

Our findings indicate that these murders are connected to five major issues in the Peruvian Amazon:
Illegal gold mining, Illegal logging, Illicit crops (coca), Land trafficking, and Protesting.

This report focuses on the first three (Illegal gold mining, Illegal logging, and Illicit crops).

Base Map

Base Map. Location of the 29 environmental defenders murdered in Peru and the suspected causes related to major environmental threats in the region 2010-2022. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

The Base Map shows the location of the 29 documented environmental defenders killed in Peru between 2010-2022.

It also indicates the environmental threat related to each death as the suspected or confirmed motive for the crime: Illegal Gold Mining, Illegal Logging, Illicit Crops (coca), Land Trafficking, and Protest.

Note that many of the murders occurred in geographic clusters that coincide with the major environmental conflict of that specific area.

For example, gold mining is a major cause of conflict in the southern Peruvian Amazon, while illegal logging and illicit crops are more common threats in the central Peruvian Amazon.

Murders related to Illegal Gold Mining

Illegal gold mining has long been, and continues to be, a major issue in the southern Peruvian Amazon (Madre de Dios region), particularly in Indigenous territories and protected area buffer zones (MAAP#208).

For example, Figure 1 illustrates the extensive gold mining deforestation (indicated in orange) in the Tambopata National Reserve buffer zone and surrounding Indigenous territories.

Figure 1. Three cases of environmental defender deaths related to illegal mining. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

Since 2015, three environmental defenders have been killed within or near the Tambopata National Reserve buffer zone (see yellow dots in Figure 1). All three cases involved forestry concessionaires trying to defend their concession from illegal mining invasion.

In 2015, Alfredo Vracko Neuenschwander was killed near the critical mining area known as “La Pampa” located in the core of the buffer zone. Note that during the two years prior to his death, more than 1,700 hectares were deforested in La Pampa due to illegal gold mining (MAAP #1). Vracko, who was president of the Madre de Dios Federation of Forestry and Reforestation Concessionaires at the time, is believed to have been killed by illegal miners who were scheduled to be evicted from his forestry concession on the same day. However, his murder remains officially unsolved.

In 2020, Roberto Carlos Pacheco Villanueva was killed just outside the Tambopata buffer zone. Villanueva owned a forestry concession that had been illegally deforested and burned by invaders linked to illegal mining. Having filed legal complaints about the illegal use of his land, Villanueva faced numerous threats against his life in the years leading up to his murder. While still unsolved, it is believed that his murder was committed by the same miners who invaded his concession.

More recently, in 2022, Juan Julio Fernández Hanco was murdered just off the Interoceanic Highway near the edge of the Tambopata buffer zone. During this period (2021-2023), nearly 24,000 hectares were deforested due to gold mining in this area (MAAP #195). The investigation is ongoing, with the suspects being illegal miners who invaded Juan Julio’s reforestation concessions.

Murders related to Illegal Logging

Illegal logging has been a significant problem across the Peruvian Amazon for years. A recent report revealed that over 20% of timber harvested in Peru in 2021 came from illegal origins (OSINFOR, 2024). Loreto, Madre de Dios, Amazonas, and Ucayali were identified as the regions with the highest levels of unauthorized timber extraction.

Figure 2. Four environmental defender deaths related to illegal logging. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, DEVIDA, SERNANP, ACCA.

In 2014, illegal loggers murdered four men from the community of Alto Tamaya-Saweto, in one of the most well-known murder cases of Peruvian environmental defenders. These defenders (Edwin Chota Valera, Francisco Pinedo Ramírez, Jorge Ríos Pérez, and Leoncio Quintisima Meléndez) were killed along the Peru-Brazil border (see orange dots in Figure 2), following a decade of complaints from Chota about the presence of criminal logging groups in their community. Ten years later, in April 2024, a group of loggers were found guilty of the murders and sentenced to nearly 30 years in prison. This case has since been appealed with the expectation of going to Peru’s supreme court.

Murders related to Illicit Crops (Coca)

Official data indicates that the surface area of coca production in Peru continues to increase, particularly in the central Peruvian Amazon along the Andes Mountains (in the regions of Ucayali and Huánuco). Since 2010, ten environmental defenders have been killed in this area related to their fight against coca-related activities (see red dots in Figure 3).

Figure 3. Ten cases of environmental defender deaths related to illegal coca production. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, DEVIDA, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

Three environmental defenders (Santiago Vega Chota, Yenes Ríos Bonsano, and Herasmo García Grau) were killed in 2020 and 2021 within or near their communities of Sinchi Roca and Puerto Nuevo in the region of Ucayali, following their attempts to monitor their communities’ territories for coca production. Both communities are located within a coca production zone known as Aguaytía, which experienced a 158% increase in coca cultivation between 2018 and 2022 (DEVIDA 2022).

Between 2010 and 2020, four environmental defenders (Segundo José Reategui, Manuel Tapullima, Justo Gonzales Sangama, and Arbildo Melendez) were murdered in or near the Unipacuyacu Indigenous community. These four deaths have been linked to illegal coca production by outsiders on community lands that have not yet been officially titled by the government, which has facilitated these invasions. Unipacuyacu is located within the Pichis-Palcazu-Pachitea coca production zone spanning the Huánuco and Pasco regions, where coca cultivation increased by more than 450% between 2018 and 2022 (DEVIDA 2022).

Finally, three other environmental defenders (Jesús Berti Antaihua Quispe, Gemerson Pizango Narvaes, and Nusat Parisada Benavides de la Cruz) were killed in 2022 in their communities of Santa Teresa and Cleyton. These two indigenous communities are located within and just outside of the in an area outside of the El Sira Communal Reserve buffer zone. During the four years leading up to their deaths, coca production in El Sira and its buffer zone increased by over 500% (DEVIDA 2022). While unconfirmed, it is believed that these murders were committed by mafias tied to drug trafficking and illegal mining.

Regulatory Basis

Peru ranks among the countries with the highest number of environmental defender deaths worldwide (Global Witness 2023).

Peru’s National Plan for Human Rights 2018-2021, defines an environmental defender as someone who: As an individual or collective, carries out a legitimate activity, paid or not, consisting of demanding and promoting, within the legally permitted framework, in a peaceful and nonviolent manner, the effectiveness of violated rights. Their efforts are usually manifested publicly through demands and raised through regular process channels, conforming with the framework devoted to these fundamental rights.

To address the vulnerability of environmental defenders, the Peruvian government, specifically the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights (MINJUSDH), has developed regulations to ensure their protection. The most important of these are:

Regulation Title Importance
 

Supreme Decree N 002-2018-JUS

  

National Plan for Human Rights 2018-2021

 Establishes that environmental defenders are a group of special protection and requests that the state adopts measures to protect them.
 

Supreme Decree 004-2021-JUS

  

Intersectoral Mechanism for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders

 Establishes the principles, measures, and proceedings to guarantee the prevention, protection, and access to justice for human rights defenders prior to risk situations, being the highest ranking standard in the country.
 

Ministerial Resolution 255-2020-JUS

  

Registry on Risk Situations for Human Rights Defenders

 

 Recognizes, analyzes, and manages information about the risks that human rights defenders face, and adopts actions to prevent threats.

 

Peru has also taken an intersectoral approach by coordinating participation among eight ministries: Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Woman and Vulnerable Populations, Ministry of External Relations, Ministry of Energy and Mines, and Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation Development. A public implementing agency, the National Commission for Development and Life Without Drugs (DEVIDA), also cooperates with this effort.

Despite these efforts, defenders continue to face criminalization, legal harassment, and threats of violence and murder. This shows the urgent need to strengthen their protection and institutional support in Peru.

In response, the Peruvian Congress has recently enacted three new laws to further protect human rights defenders. These include (i) Bill 4686/2022-CR, a law that recognizes and protects defenders of environmental rights, and (ii) Bill 2069/2021-PE, a law for the protection and assistance of communal and/or Indigenous or native leaders at risk. Moving forward, how the ongoing Alto Tamaya-Saweto case proceeds through Peru’s Supreme Court will be crucial to future efforts to protect environmental and human rights defenders.

References

Comisión Nacional Para El Desarrollo y Vida Sin Drogas (DEVIDA). 2023. Perú: Monitoreo de cultivos de coca 2022.

Global Witness 2023. Casi 2.000 personas defensoras de la tierra y el medioambiente asesinadas entre 2012 y 2022 por proteger el planeta.

Organismo de Supervisión de los Recursos Forestales y de Fauna Silvestre (OSINFOR). 2024. Estimación del índice y porcentaje de tala y comercio ilegal de madera en el Perú 2021.

Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada (RAISG). 2022. Presiones, amenazas y violencia en la Amazonía peruana.

Acknowledgments

This report was prepared with support from the Instituto de Bien Común (IBC).

Citation

Montoya M, Bonilla A, Novoa S, Tipula P, Salisbury D, Quispe M, Finer M, Folhadella A, Cohen M (2024) Killing of Environmental Defenders in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP:218.

MAAP #212: Machine learning to detect mining deforestation across the Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Amazon Mining Watch. Screen shot of the interactive mining deforestation map, displaying data for 2023.

Gold Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon.*

It often targets remote areas, thus impacting carbon-rich primary forests. Moreover, in most cases, this mining is illegal, given that it is occurring in protected areas and indigenous territories.

Given the vastness of the Amazon, however, it has been a challenge to accurately monitor mining deforestation across the entire biome in a timely manner.

Here we present, for the first time, the results of a new machine learning based tool (known as Amazon Mining Watch)  that analyzes satellite imagery archives to detect mining deforestation across the entire Amazon.

Specifically, the tool produces 10-meter resolution mining deforestation alerts based on the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. The alerts currently cover each year annually from 2018 to 2023.

This data reveals that gold mining is actively causing deforestation in all nine countries of the Amazon Biome (see Base Map below). The countries with the most overall mining deforestation are 1) Brazil, 2) Guyana, 3) Suriname, 4) Venezuela, and 5) Peru.

*Note that in this report we focus on mining activity that is causing deforestation. Additional critical gold mining areas in rivers (such as in northern Peru, southeast Colombia, and northwest Brazil; see MAAP #197), are not included in this report or detected/displayed in Amazon Mining Watch.

Major Findings

The Base Map below presents the mining deforestation data across the entire Amazon. Note that yellow indicates the historical mining footprint as of 2018, while red indicates the more recent mining deforestation between 2019 and 2023.

Although the alerts are pixels and not designed for precise area measurements, they can be used to give general estimates. For example, we estimate that as of 2018, there was a historical mining deforestation footprint of over 963,000 hectares across the entire Amazon. Between 2019 and 2023, we estimate that the mining deforestation footprint grew by over 944,000 hectares (2.3 million acres).

Thus, of the total accumulated mining deforestation footprint of over 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres), about half has occurred in just the past five years (see Annex).

In addition, we estimate that 38% (725,498 hectares) of the total mining deforestation occurred within protected areas and Indigenous territories.

Graph 1 shows, of the total accumulated mining, over half has occurred in Brazil (55%, covering over 1 million hectares), followed by Guyana (15%), Suriname (12%), Venezuela (7%), and Peru (7%, covering 135,625 hectares).

Base Map. Mining deforestation across the Amazon, based on data from Amazon Mining Watch, for the years 2018-2023. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.
Graph 1. Mining deforestation across the Amazon, by country. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Case Studies

In this section, we show a number of case studies highlighting the power of this data to see the evolution of mining deforestation in the following critical areas (see Insets A-E on Base Map). In these examples, note that yellow indicates the historical mining footprint as of 2018, purple indicates the expansion from 2019-2021, and red indicates the more recent mining deforestation between 2022 and 2023.

A. Southern Peruvian Amazon
B. Brazilian Amazon – Yanomami Indigenous Territory
C. Brazilian Amazon – Kayapó Indigenous Territory
D. Venezuelan Amazon – Yapacana National Park
E. Ecuadorian Amazon – Punino zone

A. Southern Peruvian Amazon

In southern Peru is one of the largest, and likely most emblematic, mining sites in the Amazon (see Inset A in Base Map). Figure 1 shows the dynamic evolution in this area, from several large core mining zones as of 2018, with more recent concentration in the designated Mining Corridor (large area where small-scale mining is permitted by the government as part of a formalization process).

Overall, we recorded over 135,000 hectares (333,590 acres) of mining deforestation in this area. Of this total, 62% (84,000 ha) was present as of 2018, while 38% (51,000 ha) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

We also highlight that of the total mining deforestation (135,000 ha), 59% has occurred within the Mining Corridor, while 41% (55,000 hectares) is outside the corridor and likely illegal. Note how mining deforestation threatens several protected areas, especially Tambopata National Reserve and Amarakaeri Communal Reserve.

See MAAP #208 for more information about mining deforestation at this site, and how illegal mining also threatens Native Communities.

Figure 1. Evolution of mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

B. Brazilian Amazon – Yanomami Indigenous Territory

In the northern Brazilian Amazon, the national government recently launched a series of raids against illegal gold mining in Yanomami Indigenous Territory (see Inset B in Base Map). Figure 2 shows a major escalation and expansion of gold mining deforestation since 2018, especially along the Uraricoera and Mucajai Rivers.

Specifically, we documented the total mining deforestation of over 19,000 hectares (47,000 acres) in Yanomami Indigenous Territory. It is critical to emphasize that the vast majority (93%) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #181 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 2. Evolution of mining deforestation in Yanomami Indigenous Territory in Brazil. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

C. Brazilian Amazon – Kayapó Indigenous Territory

In the eastern Brazilian Amazon, the Kayapó Indigenous Territory is also facing ongoing illegal mining (see Inset C in Base Map). Figure 3 shows the continuing expansion of mining deforestation, mostly in the eastern section of the territory.

We documented the total mining deforestation of nearly 50,000 hectares (123,550 acres) in Kayapó Indigenous Territory. Of this total, 60% (30,000 has) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #116 for more information about mining deforestation at this site, along with nearby Munduruku Indigenous Territory.

Figure 3. Evolution of mining deforestation in Kayapo Indigenous Territory in Brazil. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

D. Venezuelan Amazon – Yapacana National Park

In Venezuela, we see the continued expansion of mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park (see Inset D in Base Map). Indeed, Figure 4 shows the steady expansion of gold mining deforestation at several sites in the southern section of the protected area.

We documented the total mining deforestation of over 6,000 hectares (14,800 acres) in Yapacana National Park. Of this total, just over half (52%; 3,000 has) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #173 and MAAP #207 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 4. Evolution of mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park in Venezuela. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

E. Ecuadorian Amazon – Punino River

In a series of reports, we have been showing the rapid increase in mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon (see MAAP #182). One of the main sites is around the Punino River in northern Ecuador (see Inset E in Base Map). Figure 5 shows the sudden emergence of gold mining deforestation near the river.

We documented the total mining deforestation of over 500 hectares (1,235 acres) in the Punino River area. Of this total, 100% is new, all starting in 2023.

See MAAP #206 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 5. Evolution of mining deforestation in along the Punino River in Ecuador. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Annex

As noted above, of the total accumulated mining deforestation footprint of over 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres), about half has occurred in just the past five years.

Methods

All data for this report were obtained from Amazon Mining Watch. We only utilized patches with greater than 0.6 mean score. We used the 2018 data as our baseline. For 2019, we masked the previously reported 2018 data to only highlight the new mining that year. We then repeated this process for each subsequent year. For example, the 2023 data masked the 2018-2022 data, indicating only new mining deforestation that year.

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A (2024) Machine learning to detect mining deforestation across the Amazon. MAAP: #212.