Mining and Logging Threat: Gold Mining

MAAP #221: Illegal mining in protected areas of the Ecuadorian Amazon

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Protected areas in the Ecuadorian Amazon threatened by mining.

In a series of previous reports, we warned about the emergence and expansion of mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon (MAAP #151, MAAP 182, MAAP #219).

Illegal mining in Ecuador tends to operate in remote areas, such as protected areas.

Furthermore, this activity’s proximity to Colombia and Peru facilitates cross-border flows essential for the gold trade.

Here, we analyze the four protected areas in the Ecuadorian Amazon that are currently threatened by mining activities: Podocarpus and Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Parks, Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, and El Zarza Wildlife Refuge (see Base Map).

The mining is occurring deep within Podocarpus National Park.

In the other three areas (Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, and El Zarza Wildlife Refuge), unregulated mining activities are expanding in their buffer zones and starting to penetrate their respective boundaries.

Below, we present a concise analysis of these four affected protected areas, featuring high-resolution satellite imagery.

 

 

 

Podocarpus National Park

We analyzed the illegal mining activities along the Loyola River within Podocarpus National Park. We first detected the mining deforestation of 22 hectares in July 2023. By September 2024, this impact had increased to 50 hectares (124 acres), resulting in an illegal expansion of 125% within the park between 2023 and 2024 (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Mining deforestation on the banks of the Loyola River inside the Podocarpus National Park, July 2023 (left panel) vs August 2024 (right panel).
Figure 1a. Skysat image of mining deforestation of the Loyola River within the Podocarpus National Park,

In addition, we used a very high-resolution image (SkySat, 0.50 meters) from March 25, 2024, to visualize the pattern and impact of the illegal mining in greater detail.

Importantly, we found evidence that the mining activity is changing the course of the Loyola River.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sumaco Napo – Galeras National Park

We have continuously monitored the expansion of illegal mining in the Punino River basin ((MAAP #151, MAAP #219).) and its advance towards Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park. In May 2024, we first detected the penetration of illegal mining across the park’s southeastern boundary.

We estimate the expansion of 142 hectares (350 acres) in the park’s buffer zone, between September 2022 and August 2024. We also just detected the penetration (0.32 hectares) of illegal mining into the park’s boundaries (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Mining deforestation in the Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, September 2022 (left panel) vs August 2024 (right panel).

Cofán Bermejo Ecologial Reserve

In MAAP #186, we showed how mining activities along the Bermeja River threaten the boundaries of the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon. In this area, a total mining advance of 337 hectares (833 acres) was recorded during the period from February 2020 to September 2024, of which it was estimated that 1.05 hectares (2.6 acres) are within the boundary of the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Mining deforestation in the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, Feb 2020 (left panel) vs Sept 2024 (right panel).

El Zarza Wildlife Refuge

We detected mining activities along the Zarza River impacting 33 hectares (82 acres) in the buffer zone of the El Zarza Wildlife Refuge (Figure 4).

Figura 4. Deforestación minera en la zona de amortiguamiento del Refugio de Vida Silvestre el Zarza, septiembre 2022 (panel izq) vs agosto 2024 (panel der).

Acknowledgements

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad).

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MAAP #219: Illegal mining expansion in the Ecuadorian Amazon (Punino area)

Posted on by dcadmin
Base Map. Mining deforestation in the heart of the Ecuadorian Amazon (Punino area). Data: ARCERNNR 2022, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

In a series of previous reports, we warned about the emergence and expansion of illegal mining deforestation in the heart of the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the area surrounding the ​​Punino River, located between the provinces of Napo and Orellana (MAAP #182, MAAP #151).

In the most recent report, we informed that this mining impact had reached 1,000 hectares (MAAP #206).

Here, we provide an update on the growing mining activity in and around the Punino River basin during the first half of 2024.

The Base Map shows an increase of 420 hectares in 2024 (indicated in red), bringing the total impact to 1,422 hectares (3,500 acres) since its inception in 2019 (yellow and red combined). This total is equivalent to more than 2,000 professional soccer fields.

The Base Map also shows that the vast majority (90%) of the mining deforestation is located outside the limits of the areas authorized for such activity (according to the mining registry updated to 2022). In other words, the vast majority of mining is likely illegal.

We emphasize that the mining deforestation has rapidly expanded to enter the limits of two protected areas: Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park and El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area (see Figure 1, below).

In addition, the mining deforestation is actively expanding within the boundaries of Indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality (see Figure 2, below).

Below we illustrate in more detail the rapid increase in mining deforestation, especially in these protected areas and Indigenous territories.

Mining expansion in the Punino area, 2019-2024

Chart 1 illustrates the steadily increasing mining deforestation in the Punino area over the past 5 years. The impact began in 2019, reaching 1,000 hectares by the end of 2023, and more recently reaching 1,422 hectares in June 2024.

Chart 1. Historical deforestation due to mining in the Punino area between November 2019 and June 2024

Expansion of illegal mining in protected areas

Figure 1 shows the expansion of mining deforestation in and around the two protected areas of the Punino zone. Note that mining has recently penetrated the boundaries of both Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park (0.32 hectares) and El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area (144 hectares).

Figure 1. Protected areas affected by mining activity between 2019 and 2024 in the Punino area. Data: ARCERNNR 2022, MAATE 2024, NCI 2018, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 2 shows the initial encroachment (0.32 hectares) of mining deforestation in the boundaries of Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park between September 2022 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 2. Mining deforestation within the boundaries of Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, comparing September 2022 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: MAATE 2024, Planet/NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 3 shows the invasion and expansion of deforestation due to mining (144 hectares) within the boundaries of El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area between September 2023 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 3. Mining deforestation within the boundaries of the El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area, comparing September 2023 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: NCI 2018, Planet/NICFI, Ecociencia.

Expansion of illegal mining in indigenous territories

Figure 4 shows the expansion of mining deforestation (300 hectares) in relation to the Indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality in the Punino area.

Figure 4. Indigenous territories affected by mining activity between 2019 and 2024 in the Punino area. Data: RAISG 2023, ARCERNNR 2022, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 5 shows the expansion of deforestation due to mining in the indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality between September 2023 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 5. Mining deforestation within indigenous territory of the Kichwa nationality, comparing September 2023 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: RAISG 2023, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Figure 6 shows the expansion of deforestation due to mining in indigenous territories of the Kichwa nationality south of the study area between November 2019 (left panel) and June 2024 (right panel).

Figure 6. Mining deforestation within indigenous territory of the Kichwa nationality, comparing November 2019 (left panel) with June 2024 (right panel). Data: RAISG 2023, Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

 

Annex 1

Annex 1 shows the four watersheds impacted by mining activity: the Punino River basin and also the Sardinas River, Lumucha River and Supayacu River basins, which in turn form part of the Coca River macro-water system.

Annex 1. Water systems impacted by mining activity in the Punino area.

 

Annex 2

Annex 2 shows the construction of 91 kilometers of roads due to mining activity.

Annex 2. Construction of access roads associated with mining activity.

Acknowledgements

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad).

MAAP #218: Killing of Environmental Defenders in the Peruvian Amazon

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Peruvian environmental defender Edwin Chota was murdered by illegal loggers in 2014 for attempting to protect his Indigenous community from Exploitation. See Illegal Logging section. Photo: NYT/Tomas Munita.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Amazon Conservation’s MAAP program specializes in reporting on the most urgent deforestation threats facing the Amazon and producing big-picture analyses of key Amazon-wide issues.

This report uniquely presents a view into the complicated but critical issue of murders of environmental defenders, examining the relationship between the location of these killings and deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon to provide a better understanding of the context of their deaths.

Between 2010 and 2022, an estimated 29 Peruvian environmentalists and Indigenous leaders were killed while defending various parts of Peru’s Amazon from invaders seeking to exploit its resources (RAISG 2022).

Importantly, the frequency of these murders has increased in recent years, with nearly half (14 out of 29) occurring since 2020.

Our findings indicate that these murders are connected to five major issues in the Peruvian Amazon:
Illegal gold mining, Illegal logging, Illicit crops (coca), Land trafficking, and Protesting.

This report focuses on the first three (Illegal gold mining, Illegal logging, and Illicit crops).

Base Map

Base Map. Location of the 29 environmental defenders murdered in Peru and the suspected causes related to major environmental threats in the region 2010-2022. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

The Base Map shows the location of the 29 documented environmental defenders killed in Peru between 2010-2022.

It also indicates the environmental threat related to each death as the suspected or confirmed motive for the crime: Illegal Gold Mining, Illegal Logging, Illicit Crops (coca), Land Trafficking, and Protest.

Note that many of the murders occurred in geographic clusters that coincide with the major environmental conflict of that specific area.

For example, gold mining is a major cause of conflict in the southern Peruvian Amazon, while illegal logging and illicit crops are more common threats in the central Peruvian Amazon.

Murders related to Illegal Gold Mining

Illegal gold mining has long been, and continues to be, a major issue in the southern Peruvian Amazon (Madre de Dios region), particularly in Indigenous territories and protected area buffer zones (MAAP#208).

For example, Figure 1 illustrates the extensive gold mining deforestation (indicated in orange) in the Tambopata National Reserve buffer zone and surrounding Indigenous territories.

Figure 1. Three cases of environmental defender deaths related to illegal mining. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

Since 2015, three environmental defenders have been killed within or near the Tambopata National Reserve buffer zone (see yellow dots in Figure 1). All three cases involved forestry concessionaires trying to defend their concession from illegal mining invasion.

In 2015, Alfredo Vracko Neuenschwander was killed near the critical mining area known as “La Pampa” located in the core of the buffer zone. Note that during the two years prior to his death, more than 1,700 hectares were deforested in La Pampa due to illegal gold mining (MAAP #1). Vracko, who was president of the Madre de Dios Federation of Forestry and Reforestation Concessionaires at the time, is believed to have been killed by illegal miners who were scheduled to be evicted from his forestry concession on the same day. However, his murder remains officially unsolved.

In 2020, Roberto Carlos Pacheco Villanueva was killed just outside the Tambopata buffer zone. Villanueva owned a forestry concession that had been illegally deforested and burned by invaders linked to illegal mining. Having filed legal complaints about the illegal use of his land, Villanueva faced numerous threats against his life in the years leading up to his murder. While still unsolved, it is believed that his murder was committed by the same miners who invaded his concession.

More recently, in 2022, Juan Julio Fernández Hanco was murdered just off the Interoceanic Highway near the edge of the Tambopata buffer zone. During this period (2021-2023), nearly 24,000 hectares were deforested due to gold mining in this area (MAAP #195). The investigation is ongoing, with the suspects being illegal miners who invaded Juan Julio’s reforestation concessions.

Murders related to Illegal Logging

Illegal logging has been a significant problem across the Peruvian Amazon for years. A recent report revealed that over 20% of timber harvested in Peru in 2021 came from illegal origins (OSINFOR, 2024). Loreto, Madre de Dios, Amazonas, and Ucayali were identified as the regions with the highest levels of unauthorized timber extraction.

Figure 2. Four environmental defender deaths related to illegal logging. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, DEVIDA, SERNANP, ACCA.

In 2014, illegal loggers murdered four men from the community of Alto Tamaya-Saweto, in one of the most well-known murder cases of Peruvian environmental defenders. These defenders (Edwin Chota Valera, Francisco Pinedo Ramírez, Jorge Ríos Pérez, and Leoncio Quintisima Meléndez) were killed along the Peru-Brazil border (see orange dots in Figure 2), following a decade of complaints from Chota about the presence of criminal logging groups in their community. Ten years later, in April 2024, a group of loggers were found guilty of the murders and sentenced to nearly 30 years in prison. This case has since been appealed with the expectation of going to Peru’s supreme court.

Murders related to Illicit Crops (Coca)

Official data indicates that the surface area of coca production in Peru continues to increase, particularly in the central Peruvian Amazon along the Andes Mountains (in the regions of Ucayali and Huánuco). Since 2010, ten environmental defenders have been killed in this area related to their fight against coca-related activities (see red dots in Figure 3).

Figure 3. Ten cases of environmental defender deaths related to illegal coca production. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, DEVIDA, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

Three environmental defenders (Santiago Vega Chota, Yenes Ríos Bonsano, and Herasmo García Grau) were killed in 2020 and 2021 within or near their communities of Sinchi Roca and Puerto Nuevo in the region of Ucayali, following their attempts to monitor their communities’ territories for coca production. Both communities are located within a coca production zone known as Aguaytía, which experienced a 158% increase in coca cultivation between 2018 and 2022 (DEVIDA 2022).

Between 2010 and 2020, four environmental defenders (Segundo José Reategui, Manuel Tapullima, Justo Gonzales Sangama, and Arbildo Melendez) were murdered in or near the Unipacuyacu Indigenous community. These four deaths have been linked to illegal coca production by outsiders on community lands that have not yet been officially titled by the government, which has facilitated these invasions. Unipacuyacu is located within the Pichis-Palcazu-Pachitea coca production zone spanning the Huánuco and Pasco regions, where coca cultivation increased by more than 450% between 2018 and 2022 (DEVIDA 2022).

Finally, three other environmental defenders (Jesús Berti Antaihua Quispe, Gemerson Pizango Narvaes, and Nusat Parisada Benavides de la Cruz) were killed in 2022 in their communities of Santa Teresa and Cleyton. These two indigenous communities are located within and just outside of the in an area outside of the El Sira Communal Reserve buffer zone. During the four years leading up to their deaths, coca production in El Sira and its buffer zone increased by over 500% (DEVIDA 2022). While unconfirmed, it is believed that these murders were committed by mafias tied to drug trafficking and illegal mining.

Regulatory Basis

Peru ranks among the countries with the highest number of environmental defender deaths worldwide (Global Witness 2023).

Peru’s National Plan for Human Rights 2018-2021, defines an environmental defender as someone who: As an individual or collective, carries out a legitimate activity, paid or not, consisting of demanding and promoting, within the legally permitted framework, in a peaceful and nonviolent manner, the effectiveness of violated rights. Their efforts are usually manifested publicly through demands and raised through regular process channels, conforming with the framework devoted to these fundamental rights.

To address the vulnerability of environmental defenders, the Peruvian government, specifically the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights (MINJUSDH), has developed regulations to ensure their protection. The most important of these are:

Regulation Title Importance
 

Supreme Decree N 002-2018-JUS

  

National Plan for Human Rights 2018-2021

 Establishes that environmental defenders are a group of special protection and requests that the state adopts measures to protect them.
 

Supreme Decree 004-2021-JUS

  

Intersectoral Mechanism for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders

 Establishes the principles, measures, and proceedings to guarantee the prevention, protection, and access to justice for human rights defenders prior to risk situations, being the highest ranking standard in the country.
 

Ministerial Resolution 255-2020-JUS

  

Registry on Risk Situations for Human Rights Defenders

 

 Recognizes, analyzes, and manages information about the risks that human rights defenders face, and adopts actions to prevent threats.

 

Peru has also taken an intersectoral approach by coordinating participation among eight ministries: Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Woman and Vulnerable Populations, Ministry of External Relations, Ministry of Energy and Mines, and Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation Development. A public implementing agency, the National Commission for Development and Life Without Drugs (DEVIDA), also cooperates with this effort.

Despite these efforts, defenders continue to face criminalization, legal harassment, and threats of violence and murder. This shows the urgent need to strengthen their protection and institutional support in Peru.

In response, the Peruvian Congress has recently enacted three new laws to further protect human rights defenders. These include (i) Bill 4686/2022-CR, a law that recognizes and protects defenders of environmental rights, and (ii) Bill 2069/2021-PE, a law for the protection and assistance of communal and/or Indigenous or native leaders at risk. Moving forward, how the ongoing Alto Tamaya-Saweto case proceeds through Peru’s Supreme Court will be crucial to future efforts to protect environmental and human rights defenders.

References

Comisión Nacional Para El Desarrollo y Vida Sin Drogas (DEVIDA). 2023. Perú: Monitoreo de cultivos de coca 2022.

Global Witness 2023. Casi 2.000 personas defensoras de la tierra y el medioambiente asesinadas entre 2012 y 2022 por proteger el planeta.

Organismo de Supervisión de los Recursos Forestales y de Fauna Silvestre (OSINFOR). 2024. Estimación del índice y porcentaje de tala y comercio ilegal de madera en el Perú 2021.

Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada (RAISG). 2022. Presiones, amenazas y violencia en la Amazonía peruana.

Acknowledgments

This report was prepared with support from the Instituto de Bien Común (IBC).

Citation

Montoya M, Bonilla A, Novoa S, Tipula P, Salisbury D, Quispe M, Finer M, Folhadella A, Cohen M (2024) Killing of Environmental Defenders in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP:218.

MAAP #212: Machine learning to detect mining deforestation across the Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Amazon Mining Watch. Screen shot of the interactive mining deforestation map, displaying data for 2023.

Gold Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon.*

It often targets remote areas, thus impacting carbon-rich primary forests. Moreover, in most cases, this mining is illegal, given that it is occurring in protected areas and indigenous territories.

Given the vastness of the Amazon, however, it has been a challenge to accurately monitor mining deforestation across the entire biome in a timely manner.

Here we present, for the first time, the results of a new machine learning based tool (known as Amazon Mining Watch)  that analyzes satellite imagery archives to detect mining deforestation across the entire Amazon.

Specifically, the tool produces 10-meter resolution mining deforestation alerts based on the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. The alerts currently cover each year annually from 2018 to 2023.

This data reveals that gold mining is actively causing deforestation in all nine countries of the Amazon Biome (see Base Map below). The countries with the most overall mining deforestation are 1) Brazil, 2) Guyana, 3) Suriname, 4) Venezuela, and 5) Peru.

*Note that in this report we focus on mining activity that is causing deforestation. Additional critical gold mining areas in rivers (such as in northern Peru, southeast Colombia, and northwest Brazil; see MAAP #197), are not included in this report or detected/displayed in Amazon Mining Watch.

Major Findings

The Base Map below presents the mining deforestation data across the entire Amazon. Note that yellow indicates the historical mining footprint as of 2018, while red indicates the more recent mining deforestation between 2019 and 2023.

Although the alerts are pixels and not designed for precise area measurements, they can be used to give general estimates. For example, we estimate that as of 2018, there was a historical mining deforestation footprint of over 963,000 hectares across the entire Amazon. Between 2019 and 2023, we estimate that the mining deforestation footprint grew by over 944,000 hectares (2.3 million acres).

Thus, of the total accumulated mining deforestation footprint of over 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres), about half has occurred in just the past five years (see Annex).

Graph 1 shows, of the total accumulated mining, over half has occurred in Brazil (55%, covering over 1 million hectares), followed by Guyana (15%), Suriname (12%), Venezuela (7%), and Peru (7%, covering 135,625 hectares).

Base Map. Mining deforestation across the Amazon, based on data from Amazon Mining Watch, for the years 2018-2023. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.
Graph 1. Mining deforestation across the Amazon, by country. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Case Studies

In this section, we show a number of case studies highlighting the power of this data to see the evolution of mining deforestation in the following critical areas (see Insets A-E on Base Map). In these examples, note that yellow indicates the historical mining footprint as of 2018, purple indicates the expansion from 2019-2021, and red indicates the more recent mining deforestation between 2022 and 2023.

A. Southern Peruvian Amazon
B. Brazilian Amazon – Yanomami Indigenous Territory
C. Brazilian Amazon – Kayapó Indigenous Territory
D. Venezuelan Amazon – Yapacana National Park
E. Ecuadorian Amazon – Punino zone

A. Southern Peruvian Amazon

In southern Peru is one of the largest, and likely most emblematic, mining sites in the Amazon (see Inset A in Base Map). Figure 1 shows the dynamic evolution in this area, from several large core mining zones as of 2018, with more recent concentration in the designated Mining Corridor (large area where small-scale mining is permitted by the government as part of a formalization process).

Overall, we recorded over 135,000 hectares (333,590 acres) of mining deforestation in this area. Of this total, 62% (84,000 ha) was present as of 2018, while 38% (51,000 ha) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

We also highlight that of the total mining deforestation (135,000 ha), 59% has occurred within the Mining Corridor, while 41% (55,000 hectares) is outside the corridor and likely illegal. Note how mining deforestation threatens several protected areas, especially Tambopata National Reserve and Amarakaeri Communal Reserve.

See MAAP #208 for more information about mining deforestation at this site, and how illegal mining also threatens Native Communities.

Figure 1. Evolution of mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

B. Brazilian Amazon – Yanomami Indigenous Territory

In the northern Brazilian Amazon, the national government recently launched a series of raids against illegal gold mining in Yanomami Indigenous Territory (see Inset B in Base Map). Figure 2 shows a major escalation and expansion of gold mining deforestation since 2018, especially along the Uraricoera and Mucajai Rivers.

Specifically, we documented the total mining deforestation of over 19,000 hectares (47,000 acres) in Yanomami Indigenous Territory. It is critical to emphasize that the vast majority (93%) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #181 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 2. Evolution of mining deforestation in Yanomami Indigenous Territory in Brazil. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

C. Brazilian Amazon – Kayapó Indigenous Territory

In the eastern Brazilian Amazon, the Kayapó Indigenous Territory is also facing ongoing illegal mining (see Inset C in Base Map). Figure 3 shows the continuing expansion of mining deforestation, mostly in the eastern section of the territory.

We documented the total mining deforestation of nearly 50,000 hectares (123,550 acres) in Kayapó Indigenous Territory. Of this total, 60% (30,000 has) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #116 for more information about mining deforestation at this site, along with nearby Munduruku Indigenous Territory.

Figure 3. Evolution of mining deforestation in Kayapo Indigenous Territory in Brazil. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

D. Venezuelan Amazon – Yapacana National Park

In Venezuela, we see the continued expansion of mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park (see Inset D in Base Map). Indeed, Figure 4 shows the steady expansion of gold mining deforestation at several sites in the southern section of the protected area.

We documented the total mining deforestation of over 6,000 hectares (14,800 acres) in Yapacana National Park. Of this total, just over half (52%; 3,000 has) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #173 and MAAP #207 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 4. Evolution of mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park in Venezuela. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

E. Ecuadorian Amazon – Punino River

In a series of reports, we have been showing the rapid increase in mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon (see MAAP #182). One of the main sites is around the Punino River in northern Ecuador (see Inset E in Base Map). Figure 5 shows the sudden emergence of gold mining deforestation near the river.

We documented the total mining deforestation of over 500 hectares (1,235 acres) in the Punino River area. Of this total, 100% is new, all starting in 2023.

See MAAP #206 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 5. Evolution of mining deforestation in along the Punino River in Ecuador. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Annex

As noted above, of the total accumulated mining deforestation footprint of over 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres), about half has occurred in just the past five years.

Methods

All data for this report were obtained from Amazon Mining Watch. We only utilized patches with greater than 0.6 mean score. We used the 2018 data as our baseline. For 2019, we masked the previously reported 2018 data to only highlight the new mining that year. We then repeated this process for each subsequent year. For example, the 2023 data masked the 2018-2022 data, indicating only new mining deforestation that year.

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A (2024) Machine learning to detect mining deforestation across the Amazon. MAAP: #212.

MAAP #196: Mining Impacts Calculator: Analysis in 3 Indigenous Communities of the Southern Peruvian Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Website of the Gold Mining Impact Calculator developed by CSF.

Illegal gold mining has generated massive deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon (MAAP #208). This activity also affects several of the main rivers (such as the Madre de Dios, Inambari, Tambopata, Malinowski and Colorado), and also their tributaries and secondary bodies of water. All of them are contaminated by excess sediment and the presence of toxic substances such as mercury and arsenic, which are dumped during the mineral extraction process.

Thus, illegal mining activity generates large economic losses due to the direct impact on ecosystem services and other more sustainable economic activities.

Quantifying these impacts in monetary terms has been a challenge for national authorities lacking adequate instruments capable of establishing economic values of the impact generated by illegal mining activity in the Amazon. In this context, in 2021 the Mining Impacts Calculator was presented, a digital economic valuation tool developed by the organization Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF). This tool allows users to calculate the social and environmental impact of illegal gold mining in the Amazon1, in order to improve decision-making, and establish changes and/or improvements in the regulatory framework around this activity.

This report shows the results of the application of the Calculator in recent (2022 and 2023) illegal mining areas within 3 native communities, all located in the buffer zone of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve in southern Peru. This is an effort to show from a comprehensive perspective (economic and environmental) the implications of deforestation due to illegal mining in the Peruvian Amazon.

The economic calculations of the socio-environmental impacts were carried out using the Gold Mining Impact Calculator. The results show that from the beginning of 2022 to August 2023, there was a total economic loss amounting to 593 million dollars ($593,786,943) for the socio-environmental impacts, generated by deforestation, sedimentation and contamination of rivers by mercury in three indigenous communities of Madre de Dios. The details about the data that was entered into this tool to obtain the results mentioned in the report are explained in the methodology section.

Base Map

The Base Map shows the location of the case studies of this report, which is focused on quantifying the impact of illegal mining, through economic valuation, in 3 native communities in the buffer zone of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve: San José de Karene, Puerto Luz, and Barranco Chico, all located in the province of Manu, department of Madre de Dios. Additionally, on the map, you can see historical, recent, and current deforestation.

Base Map. Location of the 3 native communities of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve that are part of the study. Data: ACA/ACCA.

Impact in the San José de Karene Native Community

The native community of San José de Karene has lost 914 hectares from 2022 to August 2023 (See Map 2). In 2022, they lost 312 hectares and so far in 2023, until the month of August, 602 new hectares have been lost. It should be noted that the community currently has mining rights that overlap with its communal territory. When applying the Gold Mining Impact Calculator, it can be seen that the total socio-environmental impacts for 2022 were 86 million dollars ($86,258,492). On the other hand, so far in 2023, this figure increased significantly, reaching 166 million dollars ($166,657,897), as can be seen in Figure 1.

Map 2. Location of areas deforested by illegal mining in the San José de Karene native community (for 2022 and 2023, until August). Data: ACA.
Figure 1. Results of the Gold Mining Impact Calculator in the San José de Karene native community for the year 2022 and 2023 (until August). Source: Screenshot of the Gold Mining Impact Calculator.

Impact in the Puerto Luz Native Community

The native community of Puerto Luz has lost 270.6 hectares between 2022 and August 2023 (See Map 3). In 2022, they lost 100 hectares and so far from 2023 until the month of August they have lost 170.6 new hectares. The community currently has mining rights that overlap with its communal territory. Applying the tool, it is estimated that the total socio-environmental impacts for 2022 were 24 million dollars ($24,947,385), while so far in 2023 it was 44 million dollars ($44,205,548).

Map 3. Location of areas deforested by illegal mining in the Puerto Luz native community (for 2022 and 2023, until August). Data: ACA.

Figure 2. Results of the Calculator at the Puerto Luz native community for the year 2022 and the year 2023 (until August). Source: Screenshot of the Gold Mining Impact Calculator.

Impact in the Barranco Chico Native Community

The native community of Barranco Chico has lost 1093.3 hectares from 2022 to August 2023 (See Map 4). In 2022, they lost 277.3 hectares and so far from 2023 until the month of August they have lost 816 new hectares. The community currently has mining rights that overlap with its communal territory. Applying the Gold Mining Impact Calculator, it is observed that the total socio-environmental impacts for 2022 were 75 million dollars ($75,347,270), while so far in 2023 (August) it was 196 million dollars ( $196,370,351).

Map 4. Location of areas deforested by illegal mining in the native community Barranco Chico, Data: ACA.
Figure 3. Results of the Calculator for the Barranco Chico native community for the year 2022 and the year 2023 (until August). Source: Screenshot of the Gold Mining Impact Calculator.

Metodology

See the Spanish version of this report for full methodology and notes. The inputs to the calculator were as follows:

Acknowledgments

This report was prepared with the technical support of USAID through the Prevent Project. Prevent (Proyecto Prevenir in Spanish) works with the Government of Peru, civil society, and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali.

Disclaimer: This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through USAID. The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

The CSF Gold Mining Impact Calculator is a tool based on scientific evidence. While CSF provides peer-validated information, it is not responsible for the consequences of using the calculator.

Citation

Mamani N, Huamán B, Novoa S, Morillo A, Torres M, Silva C, Finer M (2024) Gold Mining Impact Calculator: Analysis in 3 Indigenous Communities of the Southern Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 196.

MAAP #208: Gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon, summary 2021-2024

Posted on by dcadmin
Figure 1. Recent expansion of illegal gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: Planet, NICFI

With the technical support of USAID (United States Agency for International Development) and Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation),1 we have published a series of reports on the dynamic situation regarding gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon during recent years 2.

Illegal gold mining reached crisis levels between 2017 and 2018 in the area known as La Pampa (Madre de Dios region), eliminating thousands of hectares of primary forest in the buffer zone of the Tambopata National Reserve.

In early 2019, the Peruvian government implemented Operation Mercury, a multi-sectoral intervention against illegal mining, initially focusing on La Pampa. This operation was later replaced (in 2021) by the Restoration Plan, which included interventions in other critical mining areas of the Madre de Dios region in the southern Peruvian Amazon.

In this report, we offer a concise summary of the mining situation during the past three years (between January 2021 and March 2024) in the southern Peruvian Amazon, in the context of the Restoration Plan.

During this period, we recorded a total mining deforestation of 30,846 hectares (76,222 acres), equivalent to over 40,000 soccer fields.8

Of this total, three-quarters (74%) of the deforestation occurred within the official Mining Corridor, a large area (almost half a million hectares) where the government permits artisanal and small-scale mining to organize and promote this activity3. In other words, the vast majority of mining deforestation is not necessarily illegal, because it is in the corridor designated for this activity.

The remaining one-quarter (26%) of the deforestation corresponds to probable illegal mining. That is, mining activities carried out in prohibited areas outside the Mining Corridor, such as protected areas, their buffer zones, territories of Native Communities, and bodies of water.4

Base Map: Mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon

We highlight several important findings illustrated in the Base Map and Table 1, both presented below. In both cases, we highlight recent mining deforestation (between January 2021 and March 2024). Red indicates deforested areas outside of the Mining Corridor (representing our estimate of illegal mining), while yellow indicates recently deforested areas within the Mining Corridor.

Base Map. Mining deforestation inside and outside the Madre de Dios Mining Corridor, in the southern Peruvian Amazon, between January 2021 and March 2024. Data: ACCA/MAAP.

We found that mining deforestation is concentrated within the Mining Corridor, representing 73.8% of the total (22,756 hectares). This is especially evident in the Guacamayo mining area and along the Madre Dios River.

The rest of the mining deforestation (26.2%) is outside the Mining Corridor. The majority of this deforestation (14.6%) is occurring in the 10 Native Communities of the area, covering a total of 4,494 hectares. The most affected communities are San José de Karene (1,099 ha), Barranco Chico (1,008 ha) and Tres Islas (827 ha), followed by Puerto Luz (305 ha), Boca Inambari (305 ha), Kotsimba (297 ha), San Jacinto (269 ha), Shiringayoc (267 ha), Arazaire (78 ha) and El Pilar (40 ha). However, there are different trends. For example, mining deforestation between 2021 and 2024 has decreased in Barranco Chico, while it has increased in San José de Karene, Tres Islas and Boca Inambari.

We also identified mining deforestation of 2,439 hectares (7.9%) in buffer zones of Protected Areas. The most affected are Tambopata National Reserve (such as the Mangote area, see Figure 1), Bahuaja Sonene National Park, and Amarakaeri Communal Reserve. However, it must be emphasized that mining within the actual Protected Areas has been effectively controlled by the Peruvian government, through the National Service of Protected Natural Areas (SERNANP).

In addition, we detected some mining deforestation (198 hectares) in Brazil nut forestry concessions located in the Pariamanu area.

Finally, it is important to mention that in the critical area known as La Pampa (noted above), the expansion of mining deforestation has been effectively stopped after Operation Mercury. A recent report (MAAP #193), however, showed a large increase in mining activity in previously deforested areas of La Pampa.

Table 1. Mining deforestation by category in the southern Peruvian Amazon, between January 2021 and March 2024. Data: ACA/MAAP.

Monitoring & Control of Native Communities by FENAMAD

As noted above, a large portion of the illegal mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon is occurring within the territory of the Native Communities. These Native Communities are part of an articulated federation known as FENAMAD, which is the regional representative organization of the indigenous peoples of the Madre de Dios River basin. FENAMAD defends the fundamental and collective rights of indigenous peoples and native communities, including indigenous peoples in situations of isolation and initial contact.

1. First, FENAMAD identifies priority communities threatened by illegal mining and requiring urgent monitoring.

2. Subsequently, Amazon Conservation leads real-time satellite monitoring in these prioritized communities and delivers confidential reports to FENAMAD.

3. FENAMAD then reviews the reports together with the territory monitors and the results are shared with the affected native communities who decide whether these cases require a legal process.

4. FENAMAD formulates the Environmental Legal Complaint files and delivers them to the corresponding government institutions (Prosecutor’s Office Specialized in Environmental Matters of Madre de Dios –FEMA, National Police of Peru –PNP, Ecological Police of Peru, among others).

5. Finally, in selected cases, the government organizes and directs an on-the-ground operation against illegal mining activity and associated equipment.

This process has led to the execution of 5 government-led operations between 2022 and 2024, in three communities: Barranco Chico, Kotsimba and San José de Karene (see Base Map).

Of these operations, 3 took place in the community of Barranco Chico,5 which has been especially affected by illegal mining deforestation (967 hectares in the last three years). Figure 2 indicates the location of these operations. It should be noted that mining deforestation in Barranco Chico has decreased between 2021 and 2024, likely due to these types of interventions.

Figure 2. Location of operations against illegal mining in the Barranco Chico Native Community.

The other operations occurred in the communities of Kotsimba6 and San José de Karene7.

It is worth noting that this collaboration between FENAMAD and Amazon Conservation, which is supported by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), is currently expanding to additional native communities within the impacted region.

Notes

1 USAID Prevent works with the Government of Peru, civil society and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios and Ucayali. USAID’s Prevent Project also has support from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).

2 Previous MAAP reports about gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon:

MAAP #195: GOLD MINING DEFORESTATION IN THE SOUTHERN PERUVIAN AMAZON, 2021-2023

MAAP #195: Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon, 2021-2023

November 2023

MAAP #185: GOLD MINING DEFORESTATION IN THE SOUTHERN PERUVIAN AMAZON: 2021-2022 UPDATE

MAAP #185: Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon: 2021-2022 Update

June 2023

MAAP #171: DEFORESTATION IN MINING CORRIDOR OF PERUVIAN AMAZON (2021-2022)

MAAP #171: Deforestation in Mining Corridor of Peruvian Amazon (2021-2022)

December 2022

MAAP #154: ILLEGAL GOLD MINING IN THE PERUVIAN AMAZON – 2022 UPDATE

MAAP #154: Illegal Gold Mining in the Peruvian Amazon – 2022 update

May 2022

3 The Mining Corridor, named by Legislative Decree No. 1100, as the “Zone of small mining and artisanal mining in the department of Madre Dios”, catalogs mining activities as:

– Formal: It is carried out with authorization for exploration and exploitation in a specific area, with conditions and operations regulated by the legal framework of the mining sector. It has approved environmental, administrative and operational permits.

– Informal: Artisanal and small-scale mining operates in permitted areas for mineral extraction and uses permitted machinery. Although it does not have authorization to carry out mining activity, it is in the formalization process in accordance with the provisions of Legislative Decree No. 1105, which establishes provisions for the formalization process of small-scale mining and artisanal mining activities. Therefore, it is considered an administrative infraction, but not a crime.

– Illegal: Exploration, extraction and exploitation of mineral resources in prohibited areas (such as Protected Areas and bodies of water) and using prohibited machinery, failing to comply with administrative, technical and environmental requirements established in Peruvian legislation. This is a crime stipulated in article 207-A of the Penal Code, which carries a custodial sentence.

4 Although keep in mind that there may be mining concessions within the Native Community territories.

5 FEMA operations in the Barranco Chico community occurred in April 2022 (América Televisión video), April 2023 (El Comercio) and June 2023. There was an initial operation before the project in 2021.

6 FEMA operation in the Kotsimba community occurred in October 2023.

7 FEMA operation in the community of San José de Karene occurred in April 2024.

8 Of this total (30,846 hectares), 28,292 hectares occurred during 2021-2023, while 2,554 hectares occurred in the first quarter of 2024.

9 Undesignated refers to areas without a formal designation and not included in any of the other categories.

Methodology

We used LandTrendR, a temporal segmentation algorithm that identifies changes in pixel values over time, to detect forest loss within the mining corridor between January 2021 and March 2024 using the Google Earth Engine platform. Importantly, this method was originally designed for moderate resolution Landsat imagery (30 meters)1, but we adapted it for higher spatial resolution (4.7 meters) NICFI-Planet monthly mosaics.2

In addition, we created a baseline for the period 2016 – 2020 to eliminate previously deforested areas (pre 2021), to account for rapid changes in the natural revegetation process.

Finally, we manually separated forest loss from mining vs other causes, to report specifically on direct mining-related impacts between 2021 and 2024. We used several resources to help this manual process, such as alerts with radar images (RAMI) from the SERVIR Amazonía program, historical data from the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA (from 1985 to 2021), and forest loss data from the Peruvian state (National Forest Conservation Program for Climate Change Mitigation) and the University of Maryland.

  1. Kennedy, R.E., Yang, Z., Gorelick, N., Braaten, J., Cavalcante, L., Cohen, W.B., Healey, S. (2018). Implementation of the LandTrendr Algorithm on Google Earth Engine. Remote Sensing. 10, 691.
  2. Erik Lindquist, FAO, 2021

Acknowledgments

We especially thank FENAMAD for this important strategic collaboration.

This report was prepared with the technical support of USAID through the Prevent Project. Prevent (Proyecto Prevenir in Spanish) works with the Government of Peru, civil society, and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali. USAID’s Prevent Project also has support from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).

This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through USAID. The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2024) Gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon, summary 2021-2024. MAAP: 208.

 

MAAP #207: Removing Illegal Mining from Sacred Tepui in Yapacana National Park (Venezuelan Amazon)

Posted on by Lauren deVilla

Last year,  in collaboration with the organization SOS Orinooco, we published an urgent report about illegal mining on top of a sacred tepui in the heart of Yapacana National Park in Venezuela (MAAP #169).

Tepuis are stunning table-top mountains found in northern South America. They are considered sacred by indigenous groups of the region; in fact, the word tepui means “house of the gods” in a local indigenous language. Tepuis also have high levels of endemism (unique species) since they are not connected to other ranges.

In that report, we documented 425 illegal mining data points (consisting of mining camps and machinery) on top of the tepui, indicating an organized and large-scale operation on top of this critically important biogeographical site.

Given the importance of this finding, the Washington Post published a high-profile article on the subject (see right), further exposing the severity of the illegal mining on the tepui.

In response, the Venezuelan government conducted a military operation (led by the Operational Strategic Commander of the Armed Forces) against illegal mining activity on the tepui in December 2022.

Here, we show a series of very high-resolution satellite images taken during the raid (December 2022) versus one year later (January 2024).

The images reveal that all illegal mining camps and equipment on top of the tepui have been effectively dismantled. That is, we went from 425 visible illegal mining camps and heavy equipment in December 2022 to zero in January 2024.

This removal of illegal mining activity from the tepui marks an important victory for Amazon conservation in Venezuela. However, as also detailed below, we show illegal mining continues in surrounding areas within and outside the Yapacana National Park.

Illegal Mining on the Tepui
Before vs After the Government Operation

The Figure 1 (see below) shows an aerial view of the tepui as of December 2022, surrounded by the lowland rainforest of Yapacana National. The white indicates the illegal mining activity occurring on the tepui and in the park (not including the whispy clouds passing the tepui).

Insets A-D indicate the locations of the four zooms, where we show a series of very high-resolution satellite images taken during the raid (December 2022) versus one year later (January 2024). Note that in each image, there is clear evidence of mining camps in December 2022 (left image) vs. no remaining mining camps in January 2024 (right image).

Figure 1. Former active mining sites on top of tepui in Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet/Skysat, ACA/MAAP.

Yapacana Tepui, Zoom A.

Yapacana Tepui, Zoom B.

Yapacana Tepui, Zoom C.

Yapacana Tepui, Zoom D.

Mining Continues in Yapacana National Park

Figure 2. Active mines in and around Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet/NICFI, ACA/MAAP.

While above we credit the Venezuelan government for removing illegal mining activity from the top of the tepui, in this section we note that illegal mining is still occurring in multiple sites within and around Yapacana National Park (see Figure 2).

Below we show a series of satellite images of illegal mining camps and equipment in several of these continuing active sites: Cacique, Cerro Moyo, and Yagua.

Cacique

The Cacique site, located in the southern sector of Yapacana National Park close to the tepui, we recently observed what appears to be a cluster mining camps.

Figure 3. Zoom of Cacique mining site, within Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet/Skysat, ACA/MAAP.

Cerro Moyo

At the Cerro Moyo site, located in the northwest sector of Yapacana National Park, we see both mining camps and equipment.

Figure 4. Zoom of Cerro Moyo mining site, within Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet/Skysat, ACA/MAAP.

Yagua

Note the Yagua site is located just outside the southeast sector of Yapacana National Park, but is also illegal (all mining within Amazonas province is prohibited by law). At this site we see abundant mining equipment.

Figure 5. Zoom of Yagua mining site, outside of Yapacana National Park. Data: Planet/Skysat, ACA/MAAP.

Reconhecimentos

We thank the organization  SOSOrinoco for important information and comments related to this report.

Citação

Finer M, Ariñez A (2024) Dismantling Illegal Mining from Sacred Tepui (Venezuelan Amazon). MAAP: 207.

MAAP #206: Rapid expansion of illegal mining in Ecuadorian Amazon

Posted on by Lauren deVilla

In a series of previous reports, we warned about the emergence of alluvial mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon, specifically in the area around the Punino River, located between the provinces of Napo and Orellana (MAAP #151, MAAP #182).

Here, we highlight the rapid growth of mining activity in the Punino area: 784 hectares in 2023, which represents a striking increase of 261%.

This mining activity is mainly dedicated to the extraction of gold.

The vast majority of the detected activity is illegal mining, as it is outside the limits of the areas authorized for mining. For example, note the threat that illegal mining represents for the newly created El Chaco Municipal Conservation Area (see Base Map).

 

 

 

 

Rapid expansion of mining deforestation in 2023

Image 1 emphasizes the rapid expansion of mining deforestation in the Punino area in 2023 (red), relative to the previous three years (yellow).

The yellow indicates the mining deforestation of 217 hectares between November 2019 and December 2022, while the red shows the rapid expansion of 784 hectares (1,937 acres) from January to December 2023.

Thus, in total, the forest area affected by mining activity is 1,001 hectares (2,474 acres), from 2019 to the present.

Moreover, Image 1 clearly shows that the majority of mining deforestation is located outside the limits of authorized mining areas (purple). Specifically, we estimate that 90.4% of the total affected area (904 hectares, or 2,234 acres) represent illegal mining.

Image 1. Dynamics of mining activity between 2019 and 2023 in the Punino area. Data: Planet-NICFI, EcoCiencia.

Graph 1 shows the rapid escalation of mining deforestation in 2023 (bars 2, 3 and 4) relative to the previous three years (bar 1).

Graph 1. Deforestation due to mining in the Punino area between 2019 and 2023

Image 2 shows, with high-resolution satellite images, the expansion of mining deforestation in the Punino area between December 2022 (left panel) and December 2023 (right panel). The red arrows indicate the main areas of mining expansion.

Image 2.

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the organizations EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Norwegian Development Cooperation Agency (Norad).

MAAP #185: Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon: 2021-2022 Update

Posted on by dcadmin
Base Map. Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon, 2021-2022 update. Zooms indicated by insets A-F. Click on image to enlarge. Data: ACA/MAAP, CINCIA.

Gold mining continues to be one of the main causes of deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon, especially in the Madre de Dios region.

Here, we provide a comprehensive look at the most recent (2021-2022) gold mining-related deforestation in the area, combining two important types of data for the first time:

  1. Deforestation within the Mining Corridor, a large area delimited by the Peruvian government to organize and promote mining. Mining activity in this corridor, officially known as the “Small-scale and Artisanal Mining Zone in the department of Madre de Dios,” can be formal, informal, or illegal.1
    j
  2. Deforestation outside the Mining Corridor, which represents our estimate of illegal mining. According to current regulations (Legislative Decree No. 1336), illegal mining occurs in one or more territorial categories such as protected natural areas, indigenous reserves, and natural bodies of water (such as lakes or rivers). Therefore, for this report, the presence of mining-related deforestation in protected natural areas and their buffer zones, as well as indigenous communities, is considered an indicator of illegality. However, it is important to recognize the possibility that some of these findings may be covered by current regulations regarding mining formalization.2 Therefore, it is recommended to consider the findings of illegal deforestation as referential.

These two study areas cover a total of 1.38 million hectares and include all detected mining areas in the southern Peruvian Amazon.

We highlight several important findings (see Base Map and Table 1):

  • Table 1. Data: ACA/MAAP.

    We estimate a total deforestation of 18,421 hectares (45,520 acres) due to gold mining in the southern Peruvian Amazon in the last two years (2021-2022).
    l

  • Of this total, the majority of mining-related deforestation (76.6%, or 14,117 hectares) occurred within the Mining Corridor.
    l
  • The remaining deforestation (23.4%, or 4,304 hectares) took place outside the Mining Corridor. Breaking down this percentage, 15% is found in indigenous communities, 4.8% in buffer zones of protected natural areas, 0.8% in forest concessions, and 2.8% in non-zoned areas.
    j
  • Furthermore, we found that mining within protected natural areas, such as the Tambopata National Reserve and the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, has been effectively controlled by the Peruvian government through the National Service of Protected Natural Areas (SERNANP).
    j
  • It is important to highlight that mining has stopped in the core of La Pampa (the most critical zone during the years 2014-2018) following Operation Mercury in early 2019 and the subsequent Restoration Plan in 2021.
    j
  • Compared to the years prior to Operation Mercury (2017-2018), there has been an approximate decrease of 4.5% (866 hectares) in mining-related deforestation. Most notably, there has been a major reduction in mining outside the corridor (from 47.7% to 23.4%), and a greater concentration within the corridor (from 52.3 to 76.6%).3  That is, an apparent major reduction in illegal mining.

Mining Corridor

Our main finding is that the vast majority (76.6%) of gold mining-related deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon occurred within the Mining Corridor.

We estimate that the deforestation due to mining is 14,117 hectares within the Mining Corridor in the last two years (2021-2022). Below, we present a series of zooms of some emblematic examples of recent mining-related deforestation in the corridor (Images A-C).

Image A: Mining Corridor

Image B: Mining Corridor

Image C: Mining Corridor

Outside of the Mining Corridor

The remaining deforestation due to mining (23.4%) is located outside the Mining Corridor. Breaking this down, 15% (2,769 hectares) occurred within indigenous territories, 4.8% (876 hectares) in buffer zones of protected areas, 0.8% (141 hectares) in forest concessions (for Brazil nuts), and 2.8% (517 hectares) in non-zoned areas during the last two years.

Regarding indigenous communities, the most affected were Barranco Chico (816 hectares) and San José de Karene (602 hectares), followed by Tres Islas (482 hectares), San Jacinto (177 hectares), Kotsimba (174 hectares), Puerto Luz (171 hectares), Boca Inambari (140 hectares), Shiringayoc (126 hectares), Arazaire (57 hectares), and El Pilar (23 hectares).

Regarding the buffer zones of protected areas, the most affected were the buffer zones of the Tambopata National Reserve, the Bahuaja Sonene National Park, and the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve. On the other hand, it has been found that mining within the actual protected areas, such as the Tambopata National Reserve and the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, has been effectively controlled by the Peruvian government through the National Service of Natural Protected Areas (SERNANP).

Regarding forest concessions, deforestation due to mining was identified in 141 hectares within Brazil nut concessions in the Pariamanu and Pariamarca river basins.

Next, we continue with a series of zooms showing some emblematic examples of recent deforestation due to mining in the following prohibited areas: indigenous communities (Barranco Chico, Image D), buffer zone of the Bahuaja Sonene National Park (Chaspa, Image E), and Brazil nut concessions (Pariamanu, Image F).

We also present an important area in the buffer zone of the Tambopata National Reserve known as La Pampa (Image G). La Pampa was the epicenter of destructive deforestation due to gold mining between 2014 and 2018. We show that after Operation Mercury, which began in early 2019, the expansion of gold mining in La Pampa was essentially halted.

Image D: Barranco Chico (Indigenous Community)

Image E: Chaspa (Buffer Zone of Bahuaja Sonene National Park)

Image F: Pariamanu (Brazil Nut Concession)

Image G: La Pampa (Buffer Zone of Tambopata National Reserve)

Annex

We show a version of the Basemap without the zoom insets.

Base Map (without insets). Deforestation by Gold Mining in the Southern Peruvian Amazon, with Update 2021-22. Click image to enlarge. Data: ACA/MAAP, CINCIA.

Notes

1The Mining Corridor, designated by Legislative Decree No. 1100 as the “Zone for small-scale and artisanal mining in the department of Madre de Dios,” categorizes mining activities as follows:

  • Formal: Completed formalization process with approved environmental and operational permits.
  • Informal: In the process of formalization; Operates only in authorized extraction areas, uses permitted machinery, and is considered an administrative offense, not a crime.
  • Illegal: Operates in prohibited areas such as bodies of water (e.g., rivers or lakes), uses prohibited machinery, is considered a criminal offense, and is punishable by imprisonment.

2 Due to the possibility that these activities could be existing operations prior to the declaration of Natural Protected Areas and their buffer zones.

3 The data for 2017-2018 were obtained from the Amazonian Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA.

Methodology

Mining Corridor

We used LandTrendR, a temporal segmentation algorithm that identifies changes in pixel values over time, to detect forest loss within the Mining Corridor in 2021 and 2022 using the Google Earth Engine platform. It is important to note that this method was originally designed for Landsat images with moderate resolution (30 meters)1, but we adapted it for higher spatial resolution NICFI-Planet monthly mosaics (4.7 meters).2

Additionally, we created a baseline for the period 2016-2020 to eliminate old deforested areas (prior to 2021) due to rapid changes in the natural regrowth process.

Finally, we manually separated forest loss due to mining and other causes in 2021 and 2022 to specifically report on direct impacts related to mining. For this part of the analysis, we used various resources to aid the manual process, such as radar image alerts (RAMI) from the SERVIR Amazonia program, historical data from CINCIA from 1985 to 2020, forest loss data from the Peruvian government (National Forest Conservation Program for Climate Change Mitigation), and the University of Maryland.

  1. Kennedy, R.E., Yang, Z., Gorelick, N., Braaten, J., Cavalcante, L., Cohen, W.B., Healey, S. (2018). Implementation of the LandTrendr Algorithm on Google Earth Engine. Remote Sensing. 10, 691.
  2.  Erik Lindquist, FAO, 2021

Outside the Mining Corridor

These places were identified as the main active fronts of deforestation due to gold mining, based on historical data from the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA and automatic alerts of forest loss generated by both the University of Maryland (GLAD alerts) and the Peruvian government platform (PNCBMCC-Geobosques).

The analysis combines the LandTrendr method (described earlier) with a photo interpretation based on high-resolution satellite images from Planet (3 meters). In each of the sites, we have detected, identified, and analyzed deforestation due to gold mining between 2021 and 2022. For areas with overlap between native communities and buffer zones, priority was given to the areas of the native communities.

Acknowledgements

We thank S. Novoa, C. Zavala, O. Liao, K. Nielsen, S. Otoya, and C. Ipenza for their valuable contributions and comments to this report, and R. McMullen for translation. We also thank C. Ascorra and M. Pillaca from the Amazon Scientific Innovation Center – CINCIA for providing us with historical mining data from 1985 to 2021.

This report was prepared with the technical support of USAID through the Prevent Project. Prevent (Proyecto Prevenir in Spanish) works with the Government of Peru, civil society, and the private sector to prevent and combat environmental crimes for the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the regions of Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali.

Disclaimer: This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through USAID. The contents are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

 

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N (2023) Gold Mining Deforestation in the Southern Peruvian Amazon: 2021-2022 Update. MAAP: 185.

MAAP #178: Gold Mining Deforestation Across the Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Base Map. Mining deforestation hotspots across the Amazon. Letters A-J indicate locations of case studies below. Click image to enlarge.

Gold Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon.

Although not typically at the scale of agricultural deforestation, gold mining has the potential to severely impact critical areas such as protected areas & indigenous territories.

Relatedly, gold mining often targets remote areas, thus impacting largely intact and carbon-rich primary forests.

Here, for the first time, we present a large-scale overview of the major gold mining deforestation hotspots across the entire Amazon biome.

We found that gold mining is actively causing deforestation in nearly all nine countries of the Amazon (see Base Map).

In  this report, we focus on five countries: Peru, Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia, featuring case studies of the most severe active gold mining fronts.

In most cases, this mining is likely illegal given that it is occurring in protected areas and indigenous territories.

Note that we focus on mining activity that is causing deforestation of primary forests. There are additional critical gold mining areas that are occurring in rivers, such as in northern Peru and southern Colombia, that are not included in this report.

Below, we show a series high-resolution satellite images of the Amazon case studies. Each example highlights recent gold mining deforestation; that is comparing 2020 (left panel) with 2022 (right panel).

Case Studies, in High-resolution

Peruvian Amazon

Southern Peru (specifically, the region of Madre de Dios) is one of the most severe and emblematic examples of gold mining deforestation in the Amazon, clearing thousands of hectares of primary forest (see MAAP #154). The active mining fronts have evolved substantially over the past 20+ years. Most recently, gold mining has impacted areas such as Mangote and Pariamanu.

A. Mangote

B. Pariamanu

Brazilian Amazon

In the vast Brazilian Amazon, illegal gold mining deforestation is most severe across a number of indigenous territories, most notably: Munduruku (Pará state), Kayapó (Pará), and Yanomami (Roraima).

C. Munduruku Indigenous Territory


D. Kayapó Indigenous Territory


E. Yanomami Indigenous Territory

Venezuelan Amazon

Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers in the Venezuelan Amazon (MAAP #155). This mining impact is occurring in the designated Orinoco Mining Arc, but also key protected areas such as Caura, Canaima, and Yapacana National Parks.

F. Canaima National Park


G. Yapacana National Park

Ecuadorian Amazon

We have been documenting the numerous mining deforestation hotspots in the Ecuadorian Amazon that appear to be intensifying in recent years. Two key examples are along the Punino River (Napo and Orellana provinces) and further south in Podocarpus National Park.

H. Punino River

I. Podocarpus National Park

Bolivian Amazon

One of the newest gold mining deforestation hotspots is along the Tuichi River in Madidi National Park.

J. Madidi National Park

Methodology

Mining deforestation hotspots were identified based on MAAP’s ongoing monitoring efforts, and assisted by Amazon Mining Watch.

Acknowledgements

We thank A. Folhadella, S. Novoa, D. Larrea, C. De Ugarte, and M. Teran for helpful comments on this report, and Conservación Amazónica – ACCA for data on mining sites in northern Peru.

This work was supported by Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation) and ICFC (International Conservation Fund of Canada).

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A, Mamani N (2023) Mining Deforestation Across the Amazon. MAAP: 178.