Mining and Logging Threat: Minería de Oro

MAAP #247: River gold mining expansion in the northern Peruvian Amazon (Loreto region)

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Gold mining activity in Loreto, Peru. Data: ACCA, FAP, FEMA, FZS, GGF, IBC, SERNANP.

Gold mining has been expanding in recent years across various regions of the Peruvian Amazon.

Previous reports (for example, see MAAP #241) have shown the rapid expansion of gold mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon, particularly in the Madre de Dios region. 

Our reporting has also indicated that gold mining continues to expand into other Amazonian regions (see MAAP #233), notably the Loreto region in the northern Peruvian Amazon (see Base Map).

Loreto is one of the Amazonian regions most affected by river-based mining activity. Mining dredges are a direct source of river contamination due to the substances used in the gold extraction process, most notably mercury.

During our active monitoring period from 2017 to 2026, we have detected or otherwise documented over 1,500 mining dredges in the Amazonian rivers of the Loreto region (based on our detections from very-high-resolution satellite imagery and reports from other institutions, see Annex for details).

In fact, we have identified a major increase in the number of recorded mining dredges during the most recent 2025 to 2026 period, including expansion to new rivers across Loreto.

Over just these past two years (2025–2026), we have identified over 700 mining dredges in the rivers of Loreto, representing nearly half (46%) of the total going back to 2017.

Furthermore, we have now documented the presence of mining dredges in 13 rivers in Loreto: Atacuari, Chambira, Cotuhe, Curaray, Marañón, Mazan, Nanay, Napo, Patayacu, Pintuyacu, Putumayo, Tigre, and Yaguas. Of these, the rivers most affected by dredge-based mining activity are the Nanay, Marañón, Tigre, and Mazán.

Below, we present four case studies (see Base Map, Insets A–D) that illustrate the current gold mining situation in the Amazonian rivers of the Loreto region. These case studies document mining activity during the years 2025–2026 and feature high-resolution satellite imagery.

Case Studies

A. Putumayo River

Illegal gold mining activity has spread across various sections of the Putumayo River, which forms part of the Peru-Colombia border in the Loreto region. Between 2020 and 2026, we recorded a total of 29 mining dredges along the Putumayo River. Of these records, 58% (17 dredges) date from 2025–2026 (Figure A), highlighting the increase in illegal gold mining activity in recent years.

Figure A. Mining dredges located on the Putumayo River. Data: ACCA, Planet.

B. Tigre River

We have recorded illegal gold mining in various sections of the Tigre River, an Amazonian river spanning over 550 km across the Loreto region. Between 2021 and 2026, a total of 73 mining dredges were recorded along the Tigre River, making it the river with the third-highest number of historical dredge records in the region. In recent years (2025–2026), 67 mining dredges were recorded along the Tigre River, representing 91% of the total records for this river.

This situation demonstrates a major increase in illegal mining activity on the Tigre River, which has included gold extraction near the riverbanks (Figure B1), as well as the presence of mining dredges near populated areas (Figure B2).

Figure B1. Mining dredges located on the Tigre River. Data: ACCA, Google Earth.
Figure B2. Mining dredges located near a settlement on the Tigre River. Data: ACCA, Google Earth.

C. Nanay River

Gold mining activity on the Nanay River has expanded since 2021—when we first recorded gold mining dredges—a trend described in previous reports (see MAAP #187). The Nanay River is the Amazonian river most impacted by illegal mining in the Loreto region, as it accounts for the highest number of historical records of mining dredges. Between 2021 and 2026, a total of 1,076 mining dredges were recorded along various sections of the river.

During the 2025–2026 period, we documented the presence of 421 mining dredges on the Nanay River, demonstrating a steady increase in this mining activity compared to previous years (301 records in 2024, 221 records in 2023). Furthermore, mining dredges have been recorded in new sections of the Nanay River, highlighting the expansion of this mining activity and its impact along the river (Figure C1).

Figure C1. Record of mining dredges on the Nanay River for the years 2021–2026. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Furthermore, gold mining has begun to directly impact ecosystems adjacent to the Nanay River, with mining activity concentrated in areas comprising palm swamps, low-hill forests, and seasonally flooded alluvial forests. Between 2025 and 2026, we identified mining deforestation along the banks of the Nanay River (Figure C2).

Figure C2. Loss of forest cover due to mining dredging activity in the Nanay River. Data: ACCA, Plane

D. Marañón River

Illegal gold mining activity has continued to expand along the Marañón River, particularly in the Manseriche District of Datem del Marañón Province (Figure D1). In this area, gold mining operations have expanded into various zones adjacent to the river. That is, we have identified gold mining deforestation (associated with the construction of mining pits and infrastructure) along with the presence of mining dredges in the Marañón River, which represents a major escalation in terms of impact.

Figure D1. Gold mining activity on the Marañón River. Data: ACCA, FEMA, Planet.

As of June 2026, we identified 241 mining concessions in the Manseriche district according to the mining cadastre of the relevant Peruvian mining agency (INGEMMET); these include concessions that are titled (122), pending (115), extinguished (2), and other (2). As shown in Figure D1, these concessions are distributed along the Marañón River and in areas adjacent to it, reflecting an increase in mining concession applications in recent years.

On the other hand, we identified only 9 registrations in the Comprehensive Mining Formalization Registry (REINFO) for the Manseriche district. Upon verifying the mining rights associated with these nine registrations, only three are linked to mining concessions located within the district, while the other six involve mining rights that do not exist in the INGEMMET mining cadastre. Furthermore, mining activity has been recorded for only one concession associated with a REINFO registration (Golden Rose 4 mining concession).

Graph 1. Mining-related deforestation (Manseriche) and gold price (through June 2026). Data: ACCA, BCRP.

Graph 1 shows annual gold mining deforestation in the Manseriche district for the 2020–2026 period (up to June 2026).

During this period, note that annual mining deforestation has steadily increased from 2020 to 2024, coinciding with the rise of international gold prices.

Starting in 2025, we documented a major increase in mining deforestation, with more than 600 hectares impacted that year.

This rise in mining deforestation correlates with the rise in the international price of gold in 2025.

Likewise, a high number of mining concession applications were identified for the Manseriche district for that same year, with 109 new concessions recorded across various sectors of the district.

By 2026, cumulative gold mining deforestation in the Manseriche district of Loreto reached ​​868 hectares (Graph 1).

Between 2025 and 2026, we identified new mining deforestation in various sectors of the district, totaling 493 hectares during this two-year period (54% of the cumulative total back to 2020). Figure D2 shows the expansion of mining areas in one sector of the district, where forest loss has been recorded along the banks of the Marañón River.

Figure D2. Mining deforestation in the Marañón River. Data: ACCA, Planet

The gold mining deforestation has occurred in areas adjacent to the Marañón River (within a zone extending up to 6 km from the river) where we have identified mining pits and infrastructure (such as camps and dredges). Figure D3 illustrates mining sites located both on land and along the banks of the Marañón River, showing sediment accumulation in mining pits resulting from gold extraction using dredges.

Figure D3. Mining-related deforestation in areas adjacent to the Marañón River. Data: ACCA, Planet.

At the same time, the presence of illegal gold mining dredges has expanded along the Marañón River between 2022 and 2025. We identified 187 mining dredges on the river and in adjacent mining pools. By 2025, we recorded 108 mining dredges across various sectors of the Marañón River, representing 57% of the cumulative count. In certain sectors, we have observed sediment accumulation near the mining dredges, providing evidence of their extraction activities within the Marañón River (Figure D4).

Figure D4. Mining dredges identified on the Marañón River. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Public policies addressing the expansion of illegal mining in Loreto:
Progress, limitations, and challenges

The findings of this report demonstrate that illegal gold mining continues to expand in the Loreto region—particularly along the Nanay, Marañón, Tigre, and Putumayo Rivers and other Amazonian tributaries—despite the explicit ban on dredges and similar equipment for mining in bodies of water (established by Legislative Decree No. 1100, which regulates the interdiction of illegal mining). Consequently, the expansion of this activity is not due to a regulatory gap, but rather the Peruvian government’s difficulties in effectively enforcing an existing prohibition.

In alignment with the national regulatory framework, the Regional Government of Loreto (GOREL) has, for over two decades, promoted a set of regulations aimed at conserving Amazonian ecosystems, protecting water resources, and preventing activities incompatible with these objectives, such as illegal mining. In this context, it has approved various ordinances designed to strengthen the management and protection of the department’s river basins. Notable among these is a Regional Ordinance (Number 001-2025-GRL-CR), which reaffirms the importance of conserving and protecting priority river basin headwaters to ensure access to water for meeting the population’s basic needs and to promote the sustainability of regional ecosystems. These measures reflect a sustained regional policy aimed at protecting Amazonian rivers and recognizing their strategic importance for water security, biodiversity conservation, and the well-being of local communities.

The existence of this regulatory framework, however, has not been sufficient to curb the expansion of illegal mining in Loreto. In recent years, this activity has spread beyond specific hotspots to progressively encompass new Amazonian rivers and basins, driven by a combination of structural factors. Key among these are the limited state presence, the difficulty of exercising control over a territory defined by an extensive river network, the operations of criminal organizations, and the high profitability of gold. Compounding this situation are poverty, limited public investment, and a lack of sustainable economic alternatives for Amazonian populations; for them, illegal mining often represents the sole source of income—or one that is far more lucrative than traditional productive activities.

As a recent study points out (Shadow Gold: The Expansion of Illegal Mining and Its Effects on the Nanay River Basin, with a Focus on Women), this activity not only causes severe environmental impacts but also transforms local economies, strengthens illicit economies, and weakens territorial governance.

Peruvian Government response

The State’s response to the spread of illegal mining in Loreto has focused primarily on interdiction actions, joint operations, the destruction of dredges, and prosecutorial investigations aimed at reducing the operational capacity of organizations engaged in this activity.

Within this context, the competent authorities have carried out various operations in the main affected areas. One of the most recent cases involves interventions on the Tigre River, where authorities destroyed dredges after confirming a significant increase in extraction activity.

Our satellite monitoring, however, reveals that illegal mining quickly reappears in areas where interventions have taken place, demonstrating that while interdiction efforts are a necessary control tool, their effects tend to be temporary unless complemented by additional strategies aimed at dismantling the criminal networks, financial flows, and supply chains that sustain this illicit economy.

In addition to enforcement actions, the State has adopted preventive measures to curb the expansion of illegal mining in areas of high environmental importance. In the Nanay River basin, for instance, the acceptance of new applications and the granting of mining concessions were suspended (Note 1), and states of emergency were declared due to the contamination of the primary water supply source for the city of Iquitos. These measures represent significant progress; however, their effectiveness depends on continuous oversight and a sustained institutional presence in the area.

In terms of national policy, Supreme Decree No. 003-2025-IN—which approves the National Strategy for the Reduction and Interdiction of Illegal Mining through 2030—recognizes the need to strengthen intelligence, inter-agency coordination, and the prosecution of criminal economies linked to illegal mining, while promoting an approach that goes beyond interdiction actions.

Limitations of the state response

Despite the advances noted above, the state’s response continues to face major structural limitations. First, Loreto presents immense logistical challenges due to its vast territory and the dispersed nature of its river network. Many of the affected areas are accessible only by river—often requiring hours or even days of travel—which drives up operational costs and makes it difficult for authorities to maintain a permanent presence.

This geographical complexity takes on a critical transnational dimension in border basins such as the Putumayo or the Tigre. The vulnerability of the borders with Colombia, Brazil, and Ecuador enables criminal organizations to operate with cross-border mobility—transporting illicit inputs like mercury or crossing international boundaries to evade interdiction efforts by Peruvian law enforcement—thereby highlighting the inadequacy of approaches limited solely to the local or national level.

Secondly, the institutional response remains predominantly reactive. Although interdiction efforts temporarily reduce the infrastructure used for illegal mining, there has been less progress in investigating financing chains, gold marketing, money laundering, and the supply of fuel, mercury, and machinery—factors that facilitate the rapid resumption of this activity.

Furthermore, weaknesses persist in the coordination among the entities responsible for control, oversight, and criminal prosecution. Limited coordination regarding information sharing, joint planning, and the monitoring of interventions—involving the National Government, Regional Governments, the Specialized Environmental Prosecutor’s Offices (FEMA), and the Directorate of Captaincies and Coast Guard (DICAPI)—reduces the effectiveness of the state’s response to highly adaptable organizations.

Another important limitation concerns inconsistencies in the granting and administration of mining rights in the region. Despite the ban on alluvial mining using dredges in water bodies, mining concessions have been identified in Loreto with boundaries that encompass rivers, streams, or other bodies of water, as well as concessions granted in areas where the expansion of illegal mining has been documented. While a mining concession does not in itself authorize the commencement of extraction activities—nor does its granting imply approval of environmental instruments or other necessary permits—this situation reveals weaknesses in land-use planning and in the coordination between the entities responsible for managing mining rights and those charged with protecting the environment and water resources. This creates conflicts regarding land management, increases pressure on sensitive ecosystems, and hinders efforts to prevent and control illegal mining.

Compounding this situation are the protracted nature of mining formalization processes and the repeated extensions of the Comprehensive Mining Formalization Registry (REINFO). In the Amazonian context, REINFO has created significant distortions; illegal operators frequently exploit it fraudulently as a “shield of impunity” to temporarily halt prosecutorial and interdiction actions, thereby subverting the purpose of a registry designed for small-scale and artisanal mining and using it instead to mask alluvial mining in water bodies—an activity that is strictly prohibited without exception.

Local responses

Given these limitations in the central government’s response, the coordination of local stakeholders emerges as a fundamental component in the fight against illegal mining. In Loreto, mechanisms for technical and social coordination—such as the Good Governance Platform for the Nanay River’s Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme and the Technical Group Against Illegal Mining—have been strengthened; these initiatives foster genuine collaboration among public entities, Indigenous organizations, civil society, and international cooperation partners.

Within this network, Indigenous organizations and local communities also play a fundamental role through community-based surveillance, territorial monitoring, and the issuance of early warnings regarding the spread of illegal mining. These initiatives complement state actions and demonstrate that strengthening territorial governance is an essential component for improving the effectiveness of public policies addressing illegal mining.

Those carrying out these monitoring activities, however, face a situation of particular vulnerability. In various river basins in Loreto—particularly the Nanay and Putumayo—leaders, community monitors (Note 2), and even park rangers have been subjected to threats and intimidation as a result of their efforts to report the spread of illegal mining and protect water resources. This situation demonstrates that the state’s response must not only strengthen oversight and interdiction capabilities but also guarantee adequate protection for those who contribute to defending the territory and ensuring compliance with environmental regulations. The persistence of these risks undermines territorial governance and limits community participation in the prevention and control of illegal mining.

Conclusions

The evidence presented above confirms that the expansion of illegal mining in Loreto is not due to the absence of a regulatory framework, but rather to limitations in effectively implementing existing public policies. Although the State has strengthened interdiction efforts and developed regulatory instruments to protect Amazonian river basins, these measures remain insufficient against criminal organizations possessing a high capacity for logistical, financial, and cross-border adaptation.

Consequently, a more effective response requires moving beyond the reactive and short-term approach to river-based controls. These actions must be complemented by strengthening financial and criminal intelligence targeting money laundering networks, strictly monitoring irregularities in formalization registries, effectively protecting human rights defenders, coordinating bilaterally in border areas, and designing viable, sustainable socioeconomic alternatives for local populations. Only through a comprehensive, decentralized approach—combining prevention, strategic criminal prosecution, territorial development, and the strengthening of community governance—will it be possible to sustainably curb and reduce the expansion of illegal mining in the Peruvian Amazon.

Methodology

The identification of mining dredges was based on the visual interpretation of very-high-resolution satellite imagery available on the Planet, Maxar, and Google Earth Pro platforms for Amazonian rivers in the Loreto region. Additionally, confidential reports and direct communications from various institutions regarding the presence of mining dredges in Amazonian rivers were incorporated. This information enabled the recording of mining dredges in new areas and the prioritization of monitoring—using very-high-resolution satellite imagery—in strategic sectors of the Loreto region.

The identification of deforestation caused by gold mining was based on the visual interpretation of high- and very-high-resolution satellite imagery available on the Planet, Maxar, and Google Earth Pro platforms for the Loreto region. Following this identification, deforestation was monitored using Planet NICFI monthly mosaics (4.7 m spatial resolution) to track the expansion of mining-related deforestation and identify new affected areas within the Loreto region.

Notes

1. Supreme Decree Nº022-2024-EM, Extension of the suspension of the admission of mining petitions in the area of ​​the Nanay River, located in the district of Alto Nanay, province of Maynas, department of Loreto

2. Members of local monitoring organizations recognized by the Loreto Regional Government and members of community monitoring committees recognized by SERNANP.

Annexes

Annex 1. Registry of mining dredges by river in the Loreto region for the periods 2017–2024 and 2025–2026 (through June)

Annex 2. Registry of mining dredges in the Loreto region for the period 2017–2026 (June)

Acknowledgments

We thank the organizations DAR (Derecho, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales), FCDS Perú (Fundación para la Conservación y Desarrollo Sostenible), and OMI (Observatorio de Minería Ilegal) for their contributions and comments on this report.

This report is part of a series focused on gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon, resulting from a strategic collaboration between the organizations Amazon Conservation and Conservación Amazónica (ACCA), with the support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

 

Citation

Pacsi R, Novoa S, Rivera G, Arana M, Finer M, Santana A. (2026). Gold mining expansion in the northern Peruvian Amazon (Loreto region). MAAP:247

MAAP #245: Illegal gold mining in Puré River National Park (Colombian Amazon)

Posted on by Matt Finer
Figure 1. Illegal mining zone in Río Puré National Park. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP

The Puré River flows through the heart of Río Puré National Park in the southeastern Colombian Amazon and then crosses into the northwestern Brazilian Amazon (Figure 1).

In addition to its extraordinary biodiversity and high carbon stocks, this protected area is home to Indigenous communities, including Indigenous peoples living in voluntary isolation (specifically, the Yurí and Passé). Their presence has been confirmed by the Colombian State (Resolution 244 of 2024), and their high vulnerability is widely recognized internationally.

In MAAP #228, published in May 2025, we reported the presence of more than 50 mining dredges along the course of the Puré River within the National Park.

Here, we warn that this illegal gold mining is now expanding outwards and causing substantial mining deforestation along the Puré River (see Figure 2).

Specifically, we present a novel monthly analysis of mining-related deforestation from January 2024 to the present (May 2026) along the impacted stretch of the Puré River, near the border with Brazil.

This analysis captures its emergence in mid-2024 and subsequent escalation in 2025, which led to two major binational operations involving the governments of Colombia and Brazil.

We also show that the gold mining deforestation has again intensified in 2026.

In total, we report the accumulated gold mining deforestation of 506 hectares in Puré River National Park between June 2024 and May 2026.

Gold mining deforestation along the Puré River

Figure 2. Illegal mining critical zones. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP

Figure 2 illustrates the gold mining deforestation along the impacted section of the Puré River (adjacent to Brazil) from its onset in 2024 to the present (2026).

We identified four critical zones where the mining deforestation has been most concentrated.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Monthly analysis of gold mining deforestation

In June 2024, we first detected a small area (<5 hectares) of mining-induced deforestation along the Pure River. This monthly impacted area progressively increased throughout the rest of the year (peaking at 16 hectares in December), reaching a cumulative total of 38 hectares for the initial year of 2024 (Figure 3a).

In early 2025, we documented a major increase, with mining deforestation doubling compared to that recorded in December 2024 (Figure 3b).

In response to this escalating situation, a binational operation was conducted in late May 2025 along the border between Colombia and Brazil (see Figure 2). This operation was coordinated among Colombian entities—the Attorney General’s Office (via its Directorate for Specialized Crimes against the Environment), the Colombian Aerospace Force, and the Colombian National Army—and Brazilian entities—the Ministry of Defense, the Brazilian Army, the Federal Police, and ICMBio.

The mining deforestation subsequently declined in June and July 2025, followed by slight increases in August and September. November, however, once again experienced higher levels of mining deforestation (55 hectares).

In response, a second binational operation took place in mid-November in the same border area. Similarly, the mining deforestation subsequently declined in December 2025 and January 2026, but then started to rise again in the following months.

Starting in February 2026, mining deforestation continued to rise once again, peaking in March and reaching 177 hectares through May (Figure 3c).

Figure 3. Monthly mining deforestation along the Puré River (2024-26). Data. ACA/MAAP.

Critical Zones

As noted above, we have identified four critical zones where the gold mining deforestation has been most concentrated along the Puré River (see Figure 2).

Zooms 1–4 show the expansion of mining deforestation across these four critical zones between February 2024 and May 2026, using high-resolution (~3-meter) Planet satellite imagery.

Zoom 1 highlights the area along the Colombia-Brazil border where the two binational operations noted above were conducted in June and November 2025. We recorded 109 hectares of mining deforestation in this zone since 2024, including 16 hectares most recently in 2026.

Zoom 2 shows the second critical area, where we recorded mining deforestation of 126 hectares since 2024, including 46 hectares in 2026.

Zoom 3 shows the third critical area, where we documented mining deforestation of 121 hectares since 2024, including 30 hectares in 2026.

Zoom 4 shows the fourth critical zone, where we recorded mining deforestation of 60 hectares since 2024, including 41 hectares in 2026.

Policy Implications

All of the gold mining deforestation presented in this report is taking place within Puré River National Park, a strict protected area where land use is not designated for mining operations of any kind. Thus, we have documented over 500 hectares of illegal gold mining deforestation in the park since 2024.

The expansion of this illegal gold mining along the Puré River poses a direct threat to the indigenous peoples living in voluntary isolation (the Yurí and Passé), who rely on the natural resources of the park for their survival. The presence of mining dredges, camps, and supply routes increases the risk of encounters, disease transmission, and forced displacement for these highly vulnerable groups.

In addition to the deforestation noted in the report, the illegal gold mining also causes mercury contamination of impacted water bodies (most notably, the Puré River) and its fish and other aquatic populations that make up the river food web. These environmental impacts subsequently translate into social consequences and human rights violations for indigenous peoples—including those living in isolation—by compromising human health, food security, and the productive capacity of their lands and resources.

It is important to note that Colombia instituted a total ban on mercury in 2023, building off an initial ban issued in 2013. This prohibition covers the import and export of mercury to and from the national territory. Despite the ban within Colombia, mercury is still heavily used for illegal gold mining in border zones, such as those examined in this report.

Colombia’s challenge, therefore, lies in strengthening sustained efforts to build a mining prevention strategy, while also continuing to develop operational response capabilities and coordinate actions across the border region with Brazil.

It is essential to carry out these measures in coordination with the Brazilian government, given that supplies, dredges, and mining infrastructure are provided by business operators from neighboring municipalities in Brazil—specifically Japurá (the urban center closest to this area), Maraã, and Jutaí. Furthermore, the river routes used to transport supplies and machinery also serve to move the gold extracted in these zones—from the Puré-Purué river corridor, across the Japurá and Tefé rivers, and finally to the city of Manaus.

As our findings indicate, binational law enforcement operations appear effective in the short term, yet illegal gold mining inevitably returns relatively quickly (within months). The challenge lies in implementing long-term strategies in a region that is remote from within Colombian territory, but more accessible from the Brazilian side.

Finally, we note that Colombia has activated protection mechanisms (established in 2018) for the Puré River National Park in response to risk reports. Additionally, the Ministry of the Interior issued an Early Warning (#1635), mandating a coordinated institutional response among the Ministries of Health, Defense, and Foreign Affairs; however, this coordination has lacked effectiveness. Although the system aims to guarantee the territorial integrity and isolation of the Yurí and Passé peoples through health contingency protocols, collaboration with neighboring indigenous groups, and coordination with local governments—while also relying on binational security operations with Brazil—the problem remains unresolved.

Overall, the appropriate legal tools are in place, yet the capacity to resolve the current situation hinges on the national government allocating funding and demonstrating the political will to implement measures on the ground, moving beyond legal formalities to an operational presence that effectively dismantles the illegal mining infrastructure along the border.

Acknowledgments

We extend special thanks to the management of Río Puré National Park for their collaboration on this analysis and report.

This report was produced in collaboration with the Foundation for Conservation and Sustainable Development (FCDS), the Amazon Conservation Team (ACT), and the Amazon Alliance for Reducing the Impacts of Gold Mining (AARIMO), with the support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

​MAAP #243: Gold Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon: Southern Sector – Zamora Chinchipe Province

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map 1. Mining deforestation in Ecuador. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP, RAISG

This is the fourth in a series of reports detailing the expansion of gold mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

In previous reports, we analysed mining activity in the northern (MAAP #227), central (MAAP #230), and southern (MAAP #238) sectors of the country, respectively (see Base Map 1).

Here, our analysis continues the study of the southern sector, focusing on mining deforestation in the Zamora Chinchipe province.

Zamora Chinchipe, located in the southernmost tip of the Ecuadorian Amazon, is one of the country’s most ecologically significant regions due to its location within the transitional zone between the Andean mountain range and the Amazonian lowlands. Due to its high biodiversity and important ecosystems, the province is home to several priority conservation areas—including Podocarpus National Park, Cerro Plateado Biological Reserve, Maycú Nature Reserve, and Upper Nangaritza River Protective Forest (see Base Map 2)—which collectively form a key ecological connectivity corridor for emblematic species such as the jaguar and spectacled bear (Jewel, 2020).

This area, however, faces growing threats associated with the expansion of extractive activities. For example, MAAP #167 first reported mining deforestation in the Upper Nangaritza River Protective Forest.

Given its high potential for mineral extraction, Zamora Chinchipe has become a province of strategic national interest. According to reporting by Mongabay, gold mining has emerged as one of its primary economic drivers, operating at multiple scales ranging from large-scale industrial projects to small-scale activities. The impacts associated with this activity include deforestation and mercury contamination.

Since 2023, Earth Genome, in collaboration with Amazon Conservation and the Pulitzer Center, has been developing an online geospatial viewer known as Amazon Mining Watch (see MAAP #226). This virtual tool automates the analysis of satellite imagery using machine learning to identify areas of gold mining deforestation across the Amazon annually since 2018. It now also features quarterly updates, representing a breakthrough that will enable the systematic, near-real-time detection of gold mining deforestation across the region.

Base Map 1 presents the location of recent mining deforestation across the Ecuadorian Amazon, based on the latest data from Amazon Mining Watch

Dynamics of Mining Activity in Zamora Chinchipe

Base Graph.Data: MapBiomas, EcoCiencia.

The Base Graph  illustrates the cumulative mining deforestation in the Zamora Chinchipe province between 1995 and 2024.

Mining impacted just 5 hectares in our 1995 baseline, before gradually reaching 1,000 hectares in 2009-2010.

Starting around 2016, we documented a notable spike in annual mining activity, reaching 2,000 hectares in 2017, then 3,000 hectares in 2019, 5,o00 hectares in 2021, and ultimately reaching a total of 6,802 hectares by 2024.

This is equivalent to 16,808 acres.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Case Studies

We conducted satellite monitoring to identify and quantify the impacts of gold mining deforestation across four case studies in Zamora Chinchipe, analyzing the dynamics of how the mining footprint expanded during the 2021–2025 period (see Base Map 2).

These cases encompass four key conservation areas, including two national protected areas (Podocarpus National Park and Cerro Plateado Biological Reserve), one protective forest (Upper Nangaritza River Basin Protective Forest), and one private conservation area (Maycú Nature Reserve).

They also include two of the province’s strategic river systems: the Nunpatakaime and Nangaritza rivers.

In total, across the four case studies, we recorded 195 hectares impacted by mining activity during the 2021–2025 period.

Base Map 2. Satellite Monitoring Area in Zamora Chinchipe. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, EcoCiencia, Planet.

Case 1:  Nangaritza River

Graph 1. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP; EcoCiencia

The case study is situated on the banks of the Nangaritza River, specifically in the village of Las Orquídeas, located in the northwestern sector of the Maycu Nature Reserve.

The impact of mining expansion is one of the primary environmental threats in this area.

We identified a total of 78 hectares affected by mining activity between 2021 and 2025, with a spike starting in 2024 (Graph 1).

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Figure 1 indicates that, of the total area affected by mining (78 ha), only 5 hectares are located within mining concessions.

Moreover, 21.2 hectares are located inside the Maycú Natural Reserve.

As indicated in Base Map 2, this area is located around the southern tip of the reserve.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panel 1 shows the notable mining expansion between July 2021 (left panel) and December 2025 (right panel) along the Nangaritza River.

Panel 1. Datos: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 2: Numpatakaime River

Graph 2. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, EcoCiencia

This case study is situated along the banks of the Nunpatakaime River, located within the Upper Nangaritza River Basin Protective Forest—a conservation area that safeguards extensive tracts of humid tropical forest characterized by their high biodiversity and excellent state of conservation.

Graph 2 indicates the rapid mining expansion between 2024 (7 hectares) and 2025 (60 hectares).

 

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Figure 2. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Figure 2 shows that of the total mining area (60 ha), only 5 hectares are located within mining concessions.

Moreover, 44 hectares of mining deforestation are located within the Upper Nangaritza River Protective Forest.

As indicated in Base Map 2, this case study is located in the eastern part of the protective forest.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panel 2 shows the rapid expansion of mining activity between September 2024 (left) and December 2025 (right).

Panel 2. Datos: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 3: Podocarpus​ National Park

Graph 3. Data: ACA/MAAP, EcoCiencia

This case study is situated along the banks of the Loyola River, located in the high-mountain zone of Podocarpus National Park.

Graph 3 indicates that, with a baseline of 12 hectares in 2023, the mining impact jumped to 28 hectares in 2024 and then 44 hectares in 2025.

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. Data: ACA/MAAP, EcoCiencia, Planet

Mining activity is taking place within Podocarpus National Park (Figure 3), where the exploitation of mineral resources is prohibited by law.

As indicated in Base Map 2, this area is within the core of the national park.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panel 3 shows the mining expansion in the national park between September 2023 (left panel) and April 2025 (right panel). The panel contrasts the loss of forest cover, as well as the impact on the Loyola River.

Panel 3. Datos: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 4: ​Cerro Plateado​ Biological Reserve

Graph 4. Data: ACA/MAAP, EcoCiencia

This case is situated within the buffer zone of the Cerro Plateado Biological Reserve, a core zone of high ecological significance in southern Ecuador.

This protected area plays a strategic role as a biodiversity corridor connecting Podocarpus National Park, the Maycú Nature Reserve, and the Upper Nangaritza River Protective Forest (see Base Map 2).

Graph 4 indicates an increase from a baseline mining impact of 4 hectares in 2024 to 13 hectares in 2025.

 

 

Figure 4. Data: ACA/MAAP, EcoCiencia, Planet

Figure 4 illustrates that most of the detected mining activity (12 hectares) is being conducted outside the areas authorised mining areas.

Notably, we also detected the initial invasion (1.59 hectares) of Cerro Plateado Biological Reserve.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panel 4 illustrates the expansion of mining activity between September 2023 (left panel) and December 2025 (right panel).

Panel 4. Datos: EcoCiencia, Planet
Figure 4 Zoom . Datos: EcoCiencia

Additionally, we obtained a more detailed view from aerial photographs captured by a drone in April 2026.

\With this enhanced imagery, we identified key minging features such as sediment ponds, removal of vegetation cover, eroded soils, and the presence of abandoned camps, among other impacts associated with mining activity (see Figure 4 Zoom).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Public Policy Recommendations

1. Standardisation of the mining cycle (and closing new mining fronts)

Photo 1. Mining activity. Source: EcoCiencia

The cases analysed in Zamora Chinchipe reveal a recurring operational pattern characterised by the opening of mining fronts, their temporary abandonment, a shift toward new areas of exploitation, and a subsequent return to previously impacted zones. This dynamic—common in small-scale and medium-scale mining—generates cumulative environmental impacts and liabilities, and hinders effective oversight by the competent authority.

The Ecuadorian legal framework establishes clear obligations regarding the planning, execution, and closure of mining activities. The ‘Organic Law for the Strengthening of the Strategic Mining and Energy Sectors’ stipulates that all mining activity must be carried out in accordance with approved technical and environmental plans—including environmental management and closure plans—starting from the initial phases of the project (Arts. 4, 7, and 9). Complementarily, the Organic Environmental Code (COA) enshrines the principles of prevention, progressive control, and comprehensive reparation for environmental damage, even when activities are conducted on an intermittent basis (Arts. 9, 171, and 291). 

However, in practice, environmental management instruments are often applied in a fragmented manner, evaluating each mining front as an isolated event and without considering the logic of abandonment and return.

In this context, it is recommended to establish standardised and mandatory technical protocols that comprehensively regulate the phases of opening, temporary suspension, abandonment, and reactivation of mining fronts. These protocols should apply regardless of the scale of the activity and serve as a complement to the respective sanctioning processes.

Additionally, it is recommended to condition the authorisation for opening new mining fronts upon the technical and verifiable compliance with progressive closure and remediation processes at previously worked fronts. This measure would serve to prevent the creation of environmental liabilities, reduce incentives for informal abandonment, and align mining practices with current legal obligations.

2. Incorporation of real-time monitoring technologies (early warning system)

Photo 2. Podocarpus National Park—threatened protected area in need of early warning system. Source: EcoCiencia

While the ‘Organic Law for the Strengthening of the Strategic Mining and Energy Sectors’ empowers the State to exercise permanent control and oversight over mining activities (Arts. 3, 4, and 9), in vast and difficult-to-access territories—such as Zamora Chinchipe—traditional control mechanisms prove insufficient to monitor the cycles of abandonment and return.

In this regard, it is recommended that technological monitoring tools—such as georeferencing systems, satellite imagery, and digital reporting platforms—be mandatorily incorporated as part of the mining management and control instruments of the regulatory and oversight body. These tools would enable the identification of periodic changes in land use, the opening of new mining fronts, and the reactivation of previously disturbed areas.

The adoption of these systems would strengthen the preventive approach to environmental control, facilitate decision-making based on technical evidence, and contribute to compliance with the control obligations established in the Organic Law for the Strengthening of the Strategic Mining and Energy Sectors, the Organic Law for the Strengthening of Protected Areas, and the COA.

3. Integration of technical oversight with local governments

The discontinuous nature of mining activity in Zamora Chinchipe necessitates a control model that moves beyond centralised oversight and relies on territorial actors. The Constitution of the Republic recognizes the right to citizen participation in public management (Art. 95)—a principle further elaborated in Ecuadorian environmental regulations.

Within this framework, it is recommended to coordinate the actions of decentralised autonomous governments with local territorial surveillance mechanisms. Such coordination would facilitate the early detection of unauthorized activities, enhance transparency throughout the mining cycle, and ensure that the return to previously impacted areas is carried out under appropriate technical and environmental conditions.

The integration of these actors would contribute to territorializing mining policy, reducing oversight gaps, and strengthening coherence between mining planning and environmental management in the province.

4. Inclusion of technological tools in judicial proceedings

The Organic Law for the Strengthening of Protected Areas (LOFAP) provides for the intervention of the National Police and the Armed Forces to protect protected areas where criminal groups are present, with the aim of neutralizing the threat and restoring conditions of normalcy. Within this framework, it stipulates that oversight in protected areas that are difficult to access—such as Podocarpus National Park and the Cerro Plateado Biological Reserve—shall be carried out through surveillance technology.

Accordingly, its Regulations (RLOFAP) establish that, in these areas, territorial control shall be strengthened through the use of technological tools—such as drones, remote sensors, georeferencing systems, camera traps, or other mechanisms—that ensure continuous and effective monitoring, subject to prior authorization from the competent authority. 

Based on this regulatory framework, the incorporation of technological components into judicial processes is recommended, such that these mechanisms form an integral part of proceedings in both administrative and criminal spheres.

A highly valuable technological component included in this list of technological tools is satellite monitoring reports. Therefore, it is recommended that they be integrated into judicial proceedings and administrative procedures, serving as elements of conviction, evidence, and proof. To this end, it is important to promote any regulatory initiative that emphasizes the importance of employing technology in environmental oversight and the prevention of illicit activities.

 

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon, produced through a strategic collaboration between the organizations Fundación EcoCiencia and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad).

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MAAP #241: Rapid Expansion of Illegal Gold Mining in Tambopata National Reserve (Southern Peruvian Amazon)

Posted on by Matt Finer
Image 1. Recent expansion of illegal gold mining in Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Gold mining has been a notorious driver of deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon for several decades. This mining-related deforestation reached crisis levels in the mid-2010s, particularly affecting Tambopata National Reserve and its buffer zone (see MAAP #96 from January 2019). This situation led to the major government operation known as “Operation Mercury” in February 2019, and a subsequent initiative known as the “Restoration Plan” in 2021.

After a period of reduced mining activity due to Operation Mercury and the Restoration Plan, illegal gold mining has resumed an alarming expansion within Tambopata National Reserve, primarily during the second half of 2025 and early 2026 (see Graph 1 below).

During this recent period (2025–26), we find that a total area of ​​500 hectares was deforested due to illegal mining in the northern part of the Reserve along the Malinowski River, which forms part of its northern boundary (see Base Map below).

Analyzing very high-resolution satellite imagery (Planet’s SkySat, 0.5m), we detected a total of 183 mining structures (such as heavy equipment and excavators) and 67 mining camps across five mining zones within the northern part of Tambopata National Reserve, as of February 2026.

Based on this finding, we estimate that around 1,000 people are currently involved in illegal mining activities in the Reserve, using a conversion factor derived from the machinery and camps detected within the mining zones (ACCA, 2022).

In response to this situation, the Peruvian government has initiated several actions in early 2026 (January – March) to address the expanding invasion of illegal mining within Tambopata National Reserve. Through coordination between police and military institutions, these interventions have resulted in the seizure and destruction of machinery, equipment, and encampments used in illegal mining activities within the Reserve (Joint Command of the Armed Forces, 2026).

Below, we present:

  • Annual mining deforestation trends in Tambopata National Reserve (2016–2025);
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  • Four case studies featuring satellite imagery to illustrate the most recent mining expansion within the Reserve.
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  • 5 pillars of public policy regarding illegal mining in Tambopata National Reserve, including enforcement operations and state limitations; legislative setbacks and threats; and the 2026 political election.

Annual Mining Deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve

Graph 1 shows annual mining deforestation within Tambopata National Reserve for the period 2016–2025. The main ecosystems affected by this mining activity were the Alluvial Floodplain Forest and Non-Floodplain Terrace Forest.

Graph 1. Mining Deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACA, ACCA, BCRP, CINCIA, MapBiomas Perú.

During this period, three key events stand out:

First, Operation Mercury—a multisectoral intervention against illegal mining in critical zones of the Madre de Dios region, carried out in early 2019—resulted in a major reduction that same year compared to 2016 and 2017, when higher levels of mining expansion were recorded. During 2017 and 2018, a series of operations and interdictions were launched in the region that helped combat the advance of illegal mining (AIDER, 2021). Coupled with these actions, the success of Operation Mercury led to a substantial reduction in mining expansion within the Tambopata National Reserve and its buffer zone (MAAP #104, MAAP #121).

Second, the “Restoration Plan“—a series of military interventions conducted in 2021 in critical illegal mining zones within the southern Peruvian Amazon—also resulted in a major decrease in mining deforestation that same year, compared to the previous year. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, difficulties arose regarding the execution of operations and patrols within Tambopata National Reserve and its buffer zone, leading to a reduction in police and military presence in key sectors (AIDER, 2021; DAR, 2023; Vadillo, 2022). Consequently, instances of illegal miners re-entering Tambopata were recorded (Romo, 2020). In response, the renewed military operations successfully combated the expansion of illegal mining activity in the Madre de Dios region, including Tambopata.

Thirdly, during 2025-early 2026, we recorded an alarming gold mining deforestation expansion (500 hectares), surpassing the figures registered during the critical years of 2016 and 2017 that led up to Operation Mercury. This sudden increase was likely driven by the exponential rise in the international price of gold (see red line in Graph 1). Thus, it is likely that the sustained rise in gold prices has influenced the expansion of illegal mining in recent years by boosting the expected profitability derived from the trade of extracted ore.

Base Map & Case Studies

The Base Map displays the recent expansion of 500 hectares deforested by illegal mining within Tambopata National Reserve during the second half of 2025 (431 hectares) and early 2026 (69 hectares through February). Mining activity is concentrated in the northwestern part of the Reserve, in areas adjacent to the Malinowski River. Furthermore, it has been identified that this illegal activity is taking place in the vicinity of several of the Reserve’s surveillance posts. Insets A–D indicate the location of the four case studies.

Base Map. Illegal Gold Mining Activity in the Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACA, ACCA, CINCIA, MapBiomas Perú.

Case Study A. Sector Isla Córdoba

In this area, located in the northwest corner of Tambopata National Reserve (see Box A in the Base Map), we recorded 106 hectares of mining deforestation between January 2025 and January 2026 (Figure A1). Note that this mining zone is situated near the Reserve’s Otorongo surveillance and control post (see Base Map).

Figure A1. Mining deforestation in the Isla Córdoba sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure A2 shows that a large portion of this deforestation (80%) occurred between July and December 2025 (indicated in orange) and continued to expand until early 2026 (red). This sector has recorded mining activity in previous years (blue), primarily between 2017 and 2018. As part of the actions undertaken during Operation Mercury in 2019, military operations were carried out to intervene in the mining zones located within this sector, achieving a reduction in the expansion of illegal mining during this period (Salazar, 2024).

Figure A2. Mining deforestation in the Isla Córdoba sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

The presence of gold mining infrastructure has expanded into the various pools located in this sector, with a total of 53 dredges and 20 mining camps recorded in February 2026 (Figure A3).

Figure A3. Mining infrastructure in the Isla Córdoba sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Case Study B. Sector A4

In this area, also located in the northwest corner of Tambopata National Reserve (see Box B on the Base Map), we recorded 101 hectares of mining deforestation between February 2025 and February 2026 (Figure B1).

Figure B1. Mining deforestation in Sector A4 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure B2 shows that, in early 2025, we detected the expansion of the first mining zones in this sector into the interior of Tambopata National Reserve (indicated yellow). Subsequently, between July and December 2025, an increase of 83 hectares of mining activity was recorded (orange), representing 82% of the total recorded. This increase in mining activity continued until early 2026 (red), expanding further into the interior of the Reserve.

Figure B2. Data: ACCA, Planet

In this sector, we recorded 68 mining structures located within pits, as well as the presence of 33 mining camps, in February 2026 (Figure B3). The number of structures identified in this zone was higher compared to the other sectors analyzed.

Figure B3. Mining infrastructure in Sector A4 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Caso Study C. Sector A7

In this area, located in the northern part of Tambopata National Reserve (see Box C on the Base Map), we recorded 25 hectares of mining deforestation between February 2025 and February 2026 along the Malinowski River (Figure C1). This new mining zone is situated near the Azul surveillance and control post (see Base Map).

Figure C1. Mining deforestation in Sector A7 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure C2 shows that mining began in the second half of 2025 (indicated in orange), marked by the presence of a mining pit adjacent to the Malinowski River, and subsequently expanded over the following months. In 2026 (red), we recorded an increase of 17 hectares, representing 68% of total deforestation. No mining infrastructure was recorded in this sector due to the lack of available very high-resolution satellite imagery for 2026.

Figure C2. Mining deforestation in Sector A7 of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Case Study D. Sector Isla Correntada

In this area, located in the northeast of Tambopata National Reserve (see inset D on the Base Map), we recorded 111 hectares of mining deforestation between January 2025 and January 2026 (Figure D1). This mining zone is situated near the Yarinal surveillance and control post (see Base Map).

Figure D1. Mining deforestation in the Isla Correntada sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Figure D2 shows that mining began expanding slightly during the January–June 2025 period (indicated in yellow). Subsequently, an advancement of mining activity was detected starting in July 2025. The expansion of mining was greatest during the July–December 2025 period, during which a total of 85 hectares of deforestation were recorded (orange), representing 76% of the total. As of 2026, mining continues to expand in various zones within the Isla Correntada sector (red).

Figure D2. Mining deforestation in the Isla Correntada sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

A total of 11 mining structures have been identified within various mining pits, and three mining camps have also been located in this sector. Figure D3 depicts various mining structures engaged in gold extraction near the Malinowski River, as well as the presence of a mining camp.

Figure D3. Mining infrastructure in the Isla Correntada sector of Tambopata National Reserve. Data: ACCA, Planet.

Public Policies Addressing Illegal Mining in the Tambopata National Reserve

The satellite imagery analysis presented in this report documents the advancement of illegal mining deforestation within Tambopata National Reserve during the 2025–2026 period. To contextualize these findings, this section examines the Peruvian State’s public policy framework during the same period, identifying the institutional, regulatory, and political factors that directly or indirectly influence the dynamics observed within the reserve.

The analysis is organized around five key themes:

  • The State’s Response: Operations and Interdiction;
  • Structural Limitations of the State Response;
  • Legislative Setbacks Favoring Illegal Mining;
  • Legislative Threats to Protected Natural Areas;
  • 2026 Political and Electoral Context.

Taken together, the regulatory and institutional landscape of the 2025–2026 period reflects a structural tension between the control measures deployed by the Executive Branch and a regressive legislative trend that has weakened mechanisms for prevention, oversight, and enforcement. This contradiction constitutes one of the primary explanatory factors behind the expansion of illegal mining documented in the analyzed satellite imagery. Each of these key areas is discussed in detail below.

1. State Response: Operations and Interdiction

In response to the encroachment of illegal mining within Tambopata National Reserve, the Peruvian State implemented a series of operational and regulatory control measures during the 2025–2026 period. The most persistent exceptional measure in the region is the state of emergency in Madre de Dios, in effect uninterruptedly since April 7, 2023, when it was declared by Supreme Decree No. 046-2023-PCM. This declaration encompasses the districts of Tambopata, Inambari, Las Piedras, and Laberinto—all located within the Tambopata province—as well as the districts of Madre de Dios and Huepetuhe in the Manu province. The measure mandated that the Peruvian National Police (PNP) assume control of internal order, supported by the Armed Forces, with the specific aim of combating illegal mining, illegal logging, and illicit drug trafficking within the region.

Building upon this declaration, land- and river-based interdiction operations were carried out within the Reserve.  The National Service of Natural Protected Areas (SERNANP)—in coordination with the National Police of Peru (PNP), the General Directorate of Captaincies and Coast Guards of Peru (DICAPI), and the Specialized Environmental Prosecutor’s Office (FEMA)—activated, through the Second Amazon Protection Brigade, a dynamic control strategy featuring continuous patrols at critical points within the reserve, with particular emphasis on the Otorongo, Azul, Yarinal, and Malinowski sectors—the latter serving as a key hub for both riverine and land-based control along the reserve’s northern boundary.

The scope of these interventions, carried out between January and March 2026, was considerable in terms of the equipment seized or destroyed by authorities, including mining rafts, engines, motors, pumps, generators, fuel, and motorcycles. In addition, 340 mining camps were dismantled. Nevertheless, satellite monitoring indicates that these actions failed to reverse the expansion of mining activity in the targeted sectors (see Figure A2).

Parallel to these actions in the field, the Executive sought to strengthen the legal framework for prosecuting crime. On January 20, 2026, it promulgated Legislative Decree No. 1695, which amends the Penal Code to stiffen penalties against illegal mining, establishing prison sentences of five to eight years for those who engage in mining activities without authorization or outside the formalization process, and six to nine years for those who traffic in chemical inputs, machinery, or minerals of illicit origin (Presidency of the Republic of Peru, 2026).

Furthermore, the regulation expressly incorporates illegal mining into the scope of the Law Against Organized Crime (Law No. 30077), thereby enabling the use of special investigative tools for the prosecution of these networks. Additionally, on February 5, 2026, a new extension of the state of emergency was ordered for an additional 60 days by means of Supreme Decree No. 017-2026-PCM, the validity of which was extended until April 6, 2026. However, the effectiveness of these measures—both operational and regulatory—encountered concrete limitations, which are analyzed in the following section.

2. Structural Limitations of the State Response

Despite the operational deployment described in the previous section, the State’s response faced limitations that reduced its effectiveness and that explain, in part, the continued advance of illegal mining documented in satellite imagery. The most critical limitation was budgetary in nature: the special units of the Peruvian Navy, which maintained a permanent presence at control and surveillance posts along the Malinowski River (the natural boundary between the Reserve and its buffer zone), were withdrawn during 2025 due to a lack of funding. This interrupted interdiction operations in one of the most active entry corridors for illegal mining into the interior of the reserve—a fact consistent with the data presented in the Base Map (Chumpitaz, 2025).

This absence of a continuous field presence resulted in a response capacity that was reactive rather than preventive. Although the High Commissioner for the Fight Against Illegal Mining, Rodolfo García Esquerre, noted that the budget allocated to this struggle was increased for 2026, specialists warned that such an increase would prove insufficient as long as current regulations continue to foster conditions of impunity for illegal operators (Chumpitaz, 2025). Along similar lines, the Illegal Mining Observatory (OMI) pointed out that judges, prosecutors, and government attorneys face budgetary constraints and a shortage of specialized personnel, thereby jeopardizing the effective enforcement of Legislative Decree No. 1695, approved in January 2026 (Pizarro, 2026).

The result of these limitations is a structural gap between the State’s operational response and the scale of the problem. The fact that the Madre de Dios region has been under a continuous state of emergency since April 2023—with consecutive extensions every 60 days—attests to the chronic nature of the phenomenon and the inadequacy of the measures adopted to reverse it in a sustained manner: interdiction operations succeed in dismantling specific equipment and camps, but they fail to prevent the reconstitution of criminal networks or the steady advance of the mining frontier deeper into the reserve. This gap cannot be explained solely by budgetary constraints or limitations in institutional capacity, but also by a series of legislative setbacks that—as analyzed in the following section—have worked at cross-purposes with the control efforts deployed in the field.

3. Legislative Setbacks Favoring Illegal Mining

As noted in the previous section, the limitations of the state response cannot be explained solely by operational or budgetary constraints, but also by a series of legislative amendments approved during the 2025–2026 period that have weakened the mechanisms for preventing, overseeing, and sanctioning illegal mining. These regulations—approved concurrently with interdiction operations—create a contradictory regulatory framework that reduces the effectiveness of control actions deployed in the field.

The most significant setback was the fifth extension of the Mining Formalization Registry (REINFO), approved by the Congressional Plenary in December 2025 and enacted by the Executive Branch via Law No. 32537 on December 26 of the same year. Through this measure, the deadline for the mining formalization process was extended until the end of 2026, with the possibility of an earlier closure should the MAPE Law and its implementing regulations enter into force prior to that date. It is worth noting that this marks the fifth consecutive extension of a mechanism originally conceived as transitional; previous extensions occurred in 2019, 2024, June 2025, and December 2025 (Zevallos Morón, 2026). Isabel Calle (2025) pointed out that, with this extension, the country remains trapped in a system that has failed to drive effective formalization and has, on the contrary, created incentives for non-compliance with the law, thereby exacerbating environmental degradation in regions such as Madre de Dios.

Compounding this setback are additional amendments that have weakened the legal tools available for combating illegal mining. Congress repealed the First Final Complementary Provision of Legislative Decree No. 1607, which had amended Law No. 30077 on Organized Crime, thereby curtailing the National Police’s (PNP) authority to take action regarding the illegal possession of explosives—particularly in cases involving miners suspended from the REINFO registry. This measure drew harsh criticism from the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic, which warned that its implementation could facilitate illicit activities linked to informal mining (Tuesta, 2024).

Taken together, these legislative setbacks create a scenario in which interdiction operations and the stricter penalties introduced by Legislative Decree No. 1695 operate within a regulatory framework that simultaneously broadens the scope of tolerance toward informal mining. Furthermore, this landscape is compounded by legislative initiatives that pose a direct threat to the region’s Natural Protected Areas, as discussed in the following section.

4. Legislative Threats to Protected Natural Areas

Added to the landscape of legislative setbacks described in the previous section are parliamentary initiatives during this same period that pose a direct threat to the legal protection framework for Protected Areas in the Madre de Dios region, including ecosystems adjacent to Tambopata National Reserve. Unlike the regulations analyzed previously, these initiatives do not merely weaken existing oversight mechanisms regarding illegal mining; rather, they aim to alter the legal protection status of spaces that currently constitute the final institutional barrier against the expansion of extractive activities in the region.

The first of these initiatives is Bill No. 1822/2024-CR, introduced on July 2, 2025, by Congressman Jorge Luis Flores Ancachi (Acción Popular). The proposal seeks to amend nine articles of the Protected Natural Areas Law (Law No. 26834), thereby opening the door to hydrocarbon extraction activities in spaces that currently enjoy the highest level of legal protection—such as national parks, as well as national and historical sanctuaries—and granting the Ministry of Energy and Mines greater authority over the management of these areas. Vanessa Cueto warned that, should this amendment be approved, protected areas would ultimately become mere “paper parks,” left exposed to the impacts of high-intensity extractive activities. Among the areas directly affected are Bahuaja Sonene and Manu National Parks, both of which border the Tambopata National Reserve (Sierra Praeli, 2023). Along similar lines, on March 20, 2026, Congressman Eduardo Salhuana introduced Bill No. 14288/2025-CR, which would declare the development of the Madre de Dios gas basin to be a matter of national interest and strategic priority. The bill would—on an exceptional basis—authorize gas exploration and exploitation activities within “indirect-use” Protected Natural Areas (ANPs), including the Manu and Bahuaja Sonene National Parks, as well as the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve. Critics have argued that the approval of this bill would constitute a regulatory regression of the highest order, given that both the Manu National Park and the Bahuaja Sonene National Park are indirect-use ANPs which, under current legislation, expressly prohibit the extraction of natural resources within their boundaries (SPDA, 2026).

During the same period, Bill No. 3377—originally introduced in October 2022 by the same congressman—was reactivated. This bill proposes to authorize the granting of mining concessions over areas that have reverted to State control due to non-compliance with obligations, inactivity, or other grounds for termination or annulment. If approved, this proposal would lift the current restrictions on the granting of new mining concessions in Madre de Dios (Salazar Vega, 2026).

These bills—although still in the legislative debate stage at the time this report was finalized—reflect a trend toward subordinating the region’s environmental protection to extractive interests. This is occurring within a context where pressure on Tambopata National Reserve has already reached critical levels, according to the satellite data analyzed. This scenario is further exacerbated by political and social factors, which are examined in the following section.

5. Violence Against Environmental Defenders and the 2026 Political-Electoral Context

The scenario of legislative pressure and institutional weakness described in the preceding sections unfolds within a social and political context that further exacerbates the situation of Tambopata National Reserve. Two factors stand out in this regard: the violence perpetrated against those who defend the territory, and the absence of a robust environmental agenda within the framework of the 2026 national electoral process.

As an example regarding violence against environmental defenders, on July 26, 2025, Hipólito Quispe Huamán—an environmental defender for Tambopata National Reserve—was murdered while traveling toward his home along the Interoceanic Highway in Madre de Dios. His death adds to the more than 30 killings of environmental defenders and Indigenous leaders recorded in Peru since 2020, solidifying a pattern of violence that functions as a deterrent against those who monitor and denounce illegal activities within the reserve (Sierra Praeli, 2025).

Compounding this factor is the political-electoral context of 2026. The national electoral process—which entails the renewal of both the Executive and Legislative branches—is unfolding against a backdrop of political instability and the progressive weakening of environmental policies. Although Peru’s natural capital underpins approximately 20% of the GDP and 65% of national agriculture, the environment does not occupy a central place in the candidates’ proposals, according to experts consulted by various organizations (Guardia Brown, 2026). This absence of structural political will implies that the substantive decisions necessary to halt the advance of illegal mining in the Reserve—such as the approval of an effective MAPE Law, the definitive closure of the REINFO, or the budgetary strengthening of SERNANP—are unlikely to be addressed in the short term, thereby prolonging the window of vulnerability documented in this report.

6. Public Policy Conclusion

An analysis of the Peruvian State’s public policy framework during the 2025–2026 period reveals a scenario of profound institutional contradiction. On one hand, the Executive branch implemented concrete response measures to address the mining crisis in Tambopata National Reserve, including declaring a state of emergency in the province of Tambopata, conducting land- and river-based interdiction operations, and strengthening the penal framework through Legislative Decree No. 1695. On the other hand, these actions operate upon a normative and institutional foundation that has simultaneously been undermined by regressive legislative decisions, structural budgetary constraints, parliamentary initiatives threatening the legal status of the region’s natural Protected Areas, and a climate of violence against environmental defenders that diminishes territorial surveillance capacity.

This contradiction is not merely circumstantial but structural: it reflects the absence of a comprehensive and sustained policy for the protection of the Reserve—one that coherently integrates the available operational, normative, budgetary, and institutional instruments. One indication of this is that, given the magnitude of the problem, SERNANP is promoting the establishment of a unified command to combat illegal mining, recognizing that the PNP’s capacity for territorial control has been overwhelmed by the scale of the phenomenon and that a more comprehensive intervention by the Armed Forces is required.

In this regard, the findings from the satellite analysis presented in this report cannot be interpreted solely as the result of the activities of criminal networks, but also as the territorial manifestation of an environmental governance framework that, during the period under review, failed to halt the encroachment of illegal mining or reverse the deforestation trend in one of the country’s most critical protected natural areas. The contrast with the results of Operation Mercury in 2019 and Plan Restoration in 2021—both associated with measurable reductions in deforestation documented in Graph 1—suggests that the effectiveness of the State does not depend on the absence of tools, but rather on the coordination, coherence, and sustainability with which these are deployed.

Methodology

The identification of gold mining deforestation in Tambopata National Reserve utilized historical mining deforestation data in the Madre de Dios region, generated by the Center for Amazonian Scientific Innovation (CINCIA) for the years 1984–2019, by MapBiomas Perú for 2020, and by Amazon Conservation (ACA) for the period from January 2021 to March 2024.

Next, the LandTrendR algorithm was used to identify forest loss in monthly Planet NICFI mosaics for the period April 2024 – July 2025. For the period August 2025 – February 2026, mining deforestation (identified using the monthly Planet NICFI mosaics at 4.7 m spatial resolution) was monitored to record the expansion of mining-related deforestation within the Reserve.

The identification of mining infrastructure and camps was based on the visual interpretation of very-high-resolution satellite imagery (Skysat from Planet) obtained (tasked) for the mining zones identified within Tambopata National Reserve.

References

Alza, R. (27 de febrero de 2026). Estado intensifica lucha contra minería ilegal en Tambopata. Rumbo Minero. https://www.rumbominero.com/actualidad/estado-intensifica-lucha-contra-mineria-ilegal-en-tambopata/

Andina. (4 de febrero de 2026). Normas Legales: prorrogan estado de emergencia en diversos distritos de Madre de Dios. Andina. https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-normas-legales-prorrogan-estado-emergencia-diversos-distritos-madre-dios-1061822.aspx

Asociación para la Investigación y Desarrollo Integral – AIDER. (2021). Minería ilegal en la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Nacional Tambopata. Cartilla N°17. https://aider.com.pe/publicacionesca/cartillas/Cartilla_Mineria_2021_VF_opt.pdf

Calle, I. (28 de noviembre de 2025). El Reinfo: una excepción que se volvió norma. SPDA. https://spda.org.pe/noticia/el-reinfo-una-excepcion-que-se-volvio-norma/

Chumpitaz, O. (31 de diciembre de 2025). Mafias mantienen en vilo al Parque Nacional del Manu y a la Reserva Nacional de Tambopata. La República. https://larepublica.pe/politica/2025/12/31/mafias-mantienen-en-vilo-al-parque-nacional-del-manu-y-a-la-reserva-nacional-de-tambopata-mineria-ilegal-hnews-775496

Conservación Amazónica (ACCA), Proyecto Prevenir – USAID. (2022). Estimación de la población minera informal e ilegal en el departamento de Madre de Dios, a partir del uso de imágenes satelitales sub métricas. https://repositorio.profonanpe.org.pe/handle/20.500.14150/2744

Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas. (2026). Comando Operacional del Sur asesta golpe de S/ 1.7 millones contra la minería en Tambopata. Presidencia de la República del Perú. https://www.gob.pe/institucion/ccffaa/noticias/1374254-comando-operacional-del-sur-asesta-golpe-de-s-1-7-millones-contra-la-mineria-ilegal-en-tambopata

Derecho, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales – DAR. (2023). Desafiando la legalidad y la justicia: La minería ilegal en Madre de Dios. Lima, Perú. https://dar.org.pe/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Mineria-ilegal-en-Madre-de-Dios-version-final.pdf

Finer, M., Mamani, N. (2020). Reducción de Minería Ilegal en la Amazonía Peruana Sur. MAAP: 121. https://www.maapprogram.org/es/mineria-peru-2020/

Guardia Brown. (26 de enero de 2026). Desafíos ambientales del Perú en 2026: minería ilegal, crimen organizado y gobernanza ambiental en un contexto electoral. Pulso PUCP. https://pulso.pucp.edu.pe/noticias/desafios-ambientales-del-peru-en-2026-mineria-ilegal-crimen-organizado-y-gobernanza-ambiental-en-un-contexto-electoral

Inforegión Redacción. (15 de enero de 2026). Destruyen 24 máquinas utilizadas para la minería ilegal en la Reserva Nacional de Tambopata. Inforegión. https://inforegion.pe/destruyen-24-maquinas-utilizadas-para-la-mineria-ilegal-en-la-reserva-nacional-de-tambopata/

Mongabay Latam. (18 de julio de 2025). ¿Qué cambios busca el proyecto de ley de Áreas Naturales Protegidas en Perú? Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/podcast/2025/07/que-cambios-busca-el-proyecto-de-ley-de-areas-naturales-protegidas-en-peru/

Pizarro, O. (4 de febrero de 2026). Minería ilegal en Perú: nuevo decreto endurece penas, pero no ataca las causas de fondo. Infobae. https://www.infobae.com/peru/2026/02/04/mineria-ilegal-en-peru-nuevo-decreto-endurece-penas-pero-no-ataca-las-causas-de-fondo/

Presidencia de la República del Perú. (20 de enero de 2026). Gobierno fortalece medidas para combatir delito de minería ilegal. Presidencia de la República del Perú. https://www.gob.pe/institucion/presidencia/noticias/1337593-gobierno-fortalece-medidas-para-combatir-delito-de-mineria-ilegal

Romo, V. (2020). Perú: Minería ilegal entra a la Reserva Nacional Tambopata ante ausencia temporal de la policía. Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/2020/03/peru-tambopata-mineria-ilegal-ausencia-de-policia/

Salazar, E. (2024). La violencia replegó al Estado peruano y presiona la Reserva Nacional Tambopata en Perú. Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/2024/07/violencia-replego-al-estado-peruano-presiona-reserva-nacional-tambopata-peru/

Guardia Brown. (26 de enero de 2026). Desafíos ambientales del Perú en 2026: minería ilegal, crimen organizado y gobernanza ambiental en un contexto electoral. Pulso PUCP. https://pulso.pucp.edu.pe/noticias/desafios-ambientales-del-peru-en-2026-mineria-ilegal-crimen-organizado-y-gobernanza-ambiental-en-un-contexto-electoral

Inforegión Redacción. (15 de enero de 2026). Destruyen 24 máquinas utilizadas para la minería ilegal en la Reserva Nacional de Tambopata. Inforegión. https://inforegion.pe/destruyen-24-maquinas-utilizadas-para-la-mineria-ilegal-en-la-reserva-nacional-de-tambopata/

Mongabay Latam. (18 de julio de 2025). ¿Qué cambios busca el proyecto de ley de Áreas Naturales Protegidas en Perú? Mongabay. https://es.mongabay.com/podcast/2025/07/que-cambios-busca-el-proyecto-de-ley-de-areas-naturales-protegidas-en-peru/

Pizarro, O. (4 de febrero de 2026). Minería ilegal en Perú: nuevo decreto endurece penas, pero no ataca las causas de fondo. Infobae. https://www.infobae.com/peru/2026/02/04/mineria-ilegal-en-peru-nuevo-decreto-endurece-penas-pero-no-ataca-las-causas-de-fondo/

Presidencia de la República del Perú. (20 de enero de 2026). Gobierno fortalece medidas para combatir delito de minería ilegal. Presidencia de la República del Perú. https://www.gob.pe/institucion/presidencia/noticias/1337593-gobierno-fortalece-medidas-para-combatir-delito-de-mineria-ilegal

Vadillo Vila, J. (2022). La minería ilegal y su impacto en tiempos de pandemia. Diario El Peruano. https://elperuano.pe/noticia/170967-la-mineria-ilegal-hoy

Zevallos Morón, J. (26 de diciembre de 2025). Gobierno promulgó ley que amplía la vigencia del Reinfo hasta diciembre de 2026. RPP. https://rpp.pe/politica/gobierno/gobierno-promulgo-ley-que-amplia-la-vigencia-del-reinfo-hasta-diciembre-de-2026-noticia-1669269

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the Sub-directorate of Strategic Information and Research on Protected Natural Areas and the Sub-directorate of Supervision, Surveillance, and Control of the National Service of Protected Natural Areas by the State (SERNANP) for their contributions and comments on this report.

This report is part of a series focusing on gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon, through a strategic collaboration between Amazon Conservation and Conservación Amazónica – Peru (ACCA), with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation

Pacsi R, Novoa S, La Torre S, Balbuena H, Finer M, Santana A, Castillo H. (2026). Rapid Expansion of Illegal Gold Mining in Tambopata National Reserve (Southern Peruvian Amazon). MAAP:241.

 

MAAP #238: Gold Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon, Southern Sector – Morona Santiago Province

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map 1. Mining Deforestation in Ecuador. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP, RAISG

This is the third in a series of reports documenting the expansion of gold mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Previous reports (MAAP #227 and MAAP #230) analyzed the progress of this activity in the northern and central parts of the country, respectively, with a focus on the provinces of Sucumbíos and Napo.

This new report focuses on mining deforestation in the southern Ecuadorian Amazon, in the province of Morona Santiago.

Since 2023, Amazon Conservation, in collaboration with Earth Genome and the Pulitzer Center, has been developing an online geoviewer known as Amazon Mining Watch (MAAP #226). This virtual tool automates the analysis of satellite imagery using machine learning to identify areas affected by mining throughout the Amazon since 2018, and now features quarterly updates for the systematic detection of new gold mining fronts in real time.

Base Map 1 shows the locations of recent confirmed mining-related deforestation using detections from the latest quarterly update of Amazon Mining Watch across the Ecuadorian Amazon, in relation to the cumulative mining impact area (2018-2024). It can be seen that several Indigenous territories converge in the analysis area (purple circles).

Morona Santiago, the second largest province in Ecuador, is one of the country’s main conservation areas and the ancestral home of the Shuar and Achuar Indigenous nationalities. However, it is currently facing a growing threat due to the expansion of gold mining.

Case Studies

Base Map 2. Satellite monitoring area in Morona Santiago. Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

Cases 1 and 2 focus on mining activities within Shuar Arutam territory (Note 1), in southern Morona Santiago (see Base Map 2).

This territory faces increasing pressure from the expansion of the agricultural frontier, selective logging, and especially mining.

Over half (55%) of the territory is under concession for the extraction of metals such as gold, silver, and copper.

Case 3 focuses on mining in the north of the province; here, illicit mining has been identified within several Shuar territories (Samikim, Kankaiman, KainKaim, Yukuapais, and Pañiashña).

We conducted satellite monitoring aimed at quantifying the impact of illegal gold mining in these three case studies during the period 2020-2025.

 

 

 

 

Mining Activity in Morona Santiago (2020-2024)

Figure 1. Mining activity in Morona Santiago. Data: MapBiomas; EcoCiencia.

Graph 1 shows the cumulative mining deforestation in the Morona Santiago province between 2020 and 2024.

In 2020, mining impacted around 420 hectares as our baseline. In the subsequent years, we documented a rapid increase, reaching a total of 856 hectares (2,115 acres) by 2024.

This represents a doubling of the affected area in just four years.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Case 1. Santiago River

Case 1. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

This case is located along the Santiago River (see Case 1 in Base Map 2), between the Shuar Santiak, Mayaik, and Nunkui associations in the territory of the Shuar Arutam (see Note 2)

This river is among the most threatened areas in the territory, especially due to the expansion of mining.

In this area, we detected the mining deforestation of 197 hectares (486 acres) between January 2020 and October 2025.

Of this total, we estimate that 20% (41 hectares; 101 acres) is likely illegal, occurring outside areas authorized for mining activity

We selected two focal areas, both with recent mining impacts, along the Santiago River (see Areas A and B in Case 1).

 

 

 

 

Panel 1 illustrates the situation in Area A, comparing mining deforestation (as well as the expansion of access roads and the impact on the river) between August 2020 (left panel) and October 2025 (right panel). Of this total forest loss, we confirmed that 12 hectares (30 acres) were located outside of authorized concessions and therefore likely illegal.

In the Annex, Panel 2 shows an example of the territorial monitoring carried out by the Shuar Arutam using drones.

Panel 1 (Area A). Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Panel 3 illustrates the situation in Area B, comparing mining deforestation (and impact to the river) between August 2020 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel). Of this total forest loss, we confirmed that 9 hectares (22 acres) were located outside of authorized concessions and therefore likely illegal.

In the Annex, Panel 4 shows an example of the territorial monitoring carried out by the Shuar Arutam using drones.

Panel 3 (Area B). Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 2. Nayap 

Case 2. Data: Ecociencia

This case is located along the Zamora River (see Case 2 in Base Map 2), on the western edge of the Churuwia association, near the Shuar Arutam community of Nayap. This territory is traditionally inhabited by Shuar communities.

In this area, we detected the mining deforestation of 164 hectares (405 acres) between January 2020 and October 2025.

Of this total, we estimate that 20% (31 hectares; 76 acres) is likely illegal, occurring outside areas authorized for mining activity

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Panel 5 illustrates the situation in Case 2, comparing mining deforestation (and impact to the river) between January 2020 (left panel) and September 2025 (right panel).

Panel 5. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Case 3.  Taisha  

This case is located in the northern part of Morona Santiago (see Case 3 in Base Map 2), within the Shuar Indigenous territories of Samikim, Kankaiman, Kainkaim, Yukuapais, and Pañiashña.

In this area, we detected the mining deforestation of 100 hectares (247 acres) between October 2024 and October 2025 (see Case 3).

Case 3. Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia, Planet

Panel 6 illustrates the situation in Case 3, comparing mining deforestation (and road expansion) between October 2024 (left panel) and October 2025 (right panel). The opening of these roads facilitates direct access for machinery, personnel, and supplies to previously inaccessible areas, increasing connectivity and accelerating the occupation of the territory.

Panel 6. Data: EcoCiencia, Planet

Policy recommendations

1. Strengthening Indigenous governance

Fundación EcoCiencia.

The cases analyzed show that, while Ecuadorian law broadly recognizes the right to citizen participation and the collective rights of indigenous peoples and nationalities in environmental and mining decisions, its implementation faces significant challenges. The legal framework distinguishes between environmental consultation as a diffuse right and prior, free, and informed consultation as a collective right, regulated by the Mining Law, the Organic Environmental Code, the Organic Law on Citizen Participation, and recent secondary legislation. However, the historical absence of a specific law and the gaps in the practical application of these mechanisms have generated tensions and questions regarding the quality of intercultural dialogue, effective access to information, and the real influence of communities in decision-making.

While the Escazú Agreement strengthens the Ecuadorian state’s obligations regarding environmental participation, access to information, and environmental justice, the cases reviewed show that these standards do not always translate into substantive processes that strengthen indigenous territorial governance. In particular, prior consultation is often conducted in isolation from permanent community-based monitoring and oversight mechanisms, which limits communities’ ability to continuously monitor extractive activities affecting their territories.

In this context, to strengthen indigenous governance, it is recommended to formally recognize indigenous monitors as legitimate actors within environmental monitoring and control processes, coordinating their work with existing institutional mechanisms. Additionally, it is proposed to implement a permanent satellite monitoring system integrated with community observation systems, allowing for the early detection of road construction and other illegal activities, and contributing to the realization of the principles of effective participation and intercultural dialogue.

 

2. Biocultural territorial planning

Fundación EcoCiencia.

The Constitution of Ecuador recognises interculturalism and plurinationality (articles 1 and 250), as well as the legal systems of indigenous peoples; similarly, the Escazú Agreement (article 7) promotes inclusive participation with intercultural approaches.

Within this framework, it is recommended to adopt a biocultural territorial planning approach that integrates indigenous life plans and governance systems as binding instruments in public decision-making.

No mining project can be approved without first being integrated into these local instruments, which are developed through community assemblies.

 

 

 

3. Controlling road expansion in Indigenous territories

Fundación EcoCiencia.

The development of a road in the Ecuadorian Amazon involves a series of fundamental environmental requirements, established in the national regulations in force as of 2025, to guarantee the protection of the environment, biodiversity, and the rights of local and indigenous communities.

These requirements are regulated primarily by the Organic Environmental Code (COA) and its Regulations (issued through Executive Decree 752 and subsequent amendments), the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court of Ecuador regarding environmental rights and the rights of Nature; and international human rights treaties such as the Escazú Agreement (in force in Ecuador since 2021).

We recommend requiring a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for all road projects in areas of high ecological sensitivity, especially in indigenous territories and protected areas.

The construction of roads without an environmental impact assessment and without applying the precautionary principle should be considered illegal and subject to reversal, prioritizing ecological restoration processes with the participation of local communities.

 

Notes

(1) Located in the Cordillera del Cóndor, between the Zamora and Yaupi rivers, the Shuar Arutam community is part of the Abiseo–Cóndor–Kutukú bio-corridor, an ecological bridge that connects the Tropical Andes biodiversity hotspot with one of the largest continuous wilderness areas of the Amazon rainforest. This mountain range protects areas of high biological importance, safeguards water sources, and harbors habitats of endemic species. Furthermore, it constitutes the ancestral territory of the Shuar people, where sacred sites preserve their spiritual and collective memory.

(2) The Santiago River flows through the Abiseo–Cóndor–Kutukú bio-corridor, one of the main biodiversity hotspots in the Ecuadorian Amazon (CARE et al., 2012), characterized by highly diverse ecosystems and the presence of numerous terrestrial and aquatic species (Schulenberg & Awbrey, 1997). Recent research even suggests that the river’s unique environmental conditions may be promoting speciation processes in fish due to its natural isolation (Provenzano & Barriga, 2018). In addition to mining, threats include hydroelectric projects, deforestation, overfishing, and the introduction of invasive species, which generate increasing pressures that degrade its ecosystems and severely affect native species.

Annex

Panels 2 and 4 highlight the territorial monitoring carried out by the Shuar Arutam using drones.

Panel 2 shows the expansion of mining deforestation between May (top panel) and November (bottom panel) of 2025.

Panel 2 (Area A). Data: Fundación EcoCiencia.

Panel 4 shows the expansion of mining impact between March (top panel) and November (bottom panel) of 2025, including more extensive excavation fronts and a greater accumulation of sediment.

Panel 4 (Area B). Data: Fundación EcoCiencia.

Citation

​​​Villa J, García C, Barriga J, Finer M, Josse C, Aguilar C (2025). Minería en la Amazonía Ecuatoriana Sector Sur – Provincia de Morona Santiago. MAAP: 238.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Shuar Arutam for their contributions to this report.

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the organizations EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with the support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

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MAAP #228: Illegal Gold Mining in the Puré and Cotuhé Rivers in the Colombian Amazon

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Illegal gold mining in the Puré & Cotuhé Rivers, Colombian Amazon. Data: ACA/MAAP, FCDS, RAISG

Illegal gold mining poses a challenge to environmental sustainability, governance, and security for all nine countries of the Amazon. The high price of gold on the international market has fueled the growth of this activity, combined with other factors such as the scarcity of economic alternatives, the presence of illicit groups, corruption, and a lack of effective government action.

In the Amazon, illegal mining has generated massive deforestation (MAAP #226), contamination of water sources due to the use of mercury, and expansion of illicit economies, with gold becoming a key source of financing for organized armed groups (Note 1).

In a series of reports, MAAP has detailed and illustrated cases of illegal mining in many parts of the Amazon, including Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, and Venezuela. These reports include both forest-based mining causing deforestation, and river-based mining causing mercury contamination.

In this report, we focus on river-based mining in the northwestern Amazon, specifically the triple border region between Colombia, Brazil, and Peru (see Base Map).In this area, illegal mining activities impact several rivers that connect these countries: the Puré, Cotuhé, Caquetá, Amazonas, Apaporis, and Putumayo Rivers in Colombia; the Napo, Curaray, Putumayo, Yaguas, Nanay, and Mazán Rivers in Peru; and the Puruí and Japurá Rivers in Brazil.

Although it doesn’t cause deforestation, this type of mining activity directly impacts not only the rivers but all ecosystems interconnected with them, due to the use of dredges and mercury. This mercury contamination spreads through the food chain, accumulating in species consumed by the local population, harming their health. This type of mining can extract up to three kilograms of gold per month, equivalent to approximately $275,000 per month (Notes 2-3).

Specifically, this report examines the current situation of the Puré and Cotuhé Rivers, in their southeastern reaches, located in the Colombian Amazon (see Base Map). These rivers are located in the department of Amazonas, along the borders of Brazil and Peru.

In both cases, we analyzed these river stretches using a combination of very high-resolution satellite images (0.5 meters, Planet/Skysat) and overflight photographs (courtesy of the Amazon Alliance for the Reduction of the Impacts of Gold Mining – AARIMO in Spanish).

This report was produced in collaboration with our Colombian partner, the Foundation for Conservation and Sustainable Development (FCDS), and with financial support from the Overbrook Foundation and Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation..

Detection of mining activity in the Puré River

The Puré River flows through the core of the Río Puré National Park in the southeastern Colombian Amazon (see Base Map).

This protected area, in addition to its extraordinary biodiversity and high carbon levels, also plays a role as a food source for Indigenous communities and is recognized as home to Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation, including the Yurí–Passé, whose high vulnerability has been widely recognized internationally.

This protected area faces pressures and threats primarily associated with alluvial mining activities, which are increasingly occurring along the Puré River from the border with Brazil. The impacts of this activity include mercury contamination of water and fish, destruction of aquatic habitats and ecosystems, hunting, logging, and impacts on food security and the environment where communities in voluntary isolation live.

Despite interventions by the Colombian government and ongoing monitoring by organizations, mining activities continue, with increased intensity during periods when the river flow is lowest.Analyzing a Skysat image from November 2024, we found 29 dredges along the Puré River (see red dots in Figure 1). Figures 1J-L show examples of these findings. In other Skysat images from March and April 2025, we identified 27 dredges (see yellow dots in Figure 1).

Figure 1. Detected gold mining activity in the Puré River. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, FCDS.

Overflight photos – Puré River

The following photos (corresponding to points 1-3 in Figure 1) were taken during a low-altitude overflight conducted by FCDS in September 2024. This additional resolution provides additional information on mining methods and their impacts (AARIMO 2024).

Punto 1

Overflight photo, Point 1. Green-roof dredger, with Starlink. Data: FCDS.
Overflight photo, Point 1. Green-roof dredger, with Starlink. Data: FCDS.

Punto 2

Overflight photo, Point 2. Three dredgers with barges and skidders. Data: FCDS.
Overflight photo, Point 2. Three dredgers with barges and skidders. Data: FCDS.

Punto 3

Overflight photo. Point 3. Dredges and heavy machinery. Data: FCDS.

Detection of mining activity in the Cotuhé River

The Cotuhé River borders the north of Amacayacu National Park (see Base Map) and passes through the Cotuhé Putumayo Indigenous Reserve (see Figure 2), in the southeast Colombian Amazon, on the borders with Peru and Brazil.

Analyzing a Skysat image from November 30, 2024, we found five dredges (Figure 2). Figures 2A-D show examples of these findings.

Figure 2. Detected gold mining activity in the Cotuhé River. Data: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, FCDS.

Overflight photos – Cotuhé River

The following photos (corresponding to points 4-5 in Figure 2) were taken from a low-altitude overflight conducted by FCDS in September 2024 (AARIMO 2024).

Punto 4

Overflight photo, Point 4. Dredger in operation with Starlink antenna. Data: FCDS
Overflight photo, Point 5. Dredger. Data: FCDS

Policy Implications

The illegal river-based mining analyzed here occurs within two important Colombian protected areas, Río Puré and Amacayacu National Parks. In these areas, no mining operations of any kind are permitted, due to impacts on biodiversity, Indigenous communities in voluntary isolation, and local Indigenous communities that depend on natural resources for their survival, putting their food security at risk.

An important factor that has intensified mining activity in the area has been the significant upward trend in the price of gold. In January 2008, an ounce of gold was quoted at around $812. By July 2024, this value reached $2,514, representing an increase of more than 200% over that period. Furthermore, recent changes in tariff policies have further boosted demand for gold (GoldMarket, 2024). Consequently, in February 2025, gold reached new highs, approaching $3,000 per ounce, substantially driven by central bank purchases (El País, 2025a).

Although Law 1658 of 2013 initiated the ban on the use of mercury in Colombia, it was not fully implemented until 2023. This ban includes the import and export of mercury to and from Colombia. However, despite the ban in Colombia, this element is used in considerable quantities for illegal gold mining in border areas, such as those observed in this report. Thus, Colombia, Brazil, and Peru face a significant challenge in complying with the law, as controls on the sale and use of this element in border areas are very complex due to the fact that these are difficult-to-access areas.

In general, a correlation has been observed between the granting of mining concessions in cross-border areas and the increase in informal mining in the Amazon subregion. For example, in the case of the Río Puré National Park, the presence of mining dredges has increased within protected areas. These dredges enter the Puré River from the Brazilian side, where therea area a large number of formal mining concessions.

A key challenge is to strengthen operational capacities and coordinate control actions among the three border countries (Colombia, Peru, and Brazil) to combat environmental crimes associated with illegal mining. These operations must be effective and not result in actions that harm the local communities and Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation in the region, as this exacerbates the internal conflict in Colombia.

Notes

1 Ministerio de Minas y Energía, 2023

2 Ebus & Pedroso, 2023

3 Bullion Vault, 2025

Acknowledgments

This report was produced in collaboration with our Colombian partner, the Foundation for Conservation and Sustainable Development (FCDS), and with financial support from the Overbrook Foundation and Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

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MAAP #227: Gold Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon – Northern Sector

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Gold mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Data: Amazon Mining Watch, RAISG

In a recent report (MAAP #226), we presented data from Amazon Mining Watch (AMW), a collaboration between Amazon Conservation, Earth Genome, and the Pulitzer Center. This public resource uses AI (artificial intelligence) to detect gold mining deforestation across the Amazon, starting in 2018.

The Base Map illustrates the current data, highlighting the most recent mining deforestation (2019–2024) in red. Note the concentration of new mining activity in the western part of the Ecuadorian Amazon, along the transition with the Andes Mountains.

This is the first in a series of reports detailing gold mining in these areas. In this report, we focus on deforestation due to mining in the northern sector, around the Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve.

The Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve was one of the best-preserved protected areas in the province of Sucumbios until approximately 2020. In recent years, a rapid expansion of gold mining has been unfolding in the buffer zone of the southeastern edge of the reserve.

The vast majority of this activity has been identified as illegal mining, as it occurs outside designated mining areas, or is carried out in concession areas without proper authorization. The expansion of illegal gold mining in this sector is promoted by criminal groups located on the border with Colombia (Note 1).

 

 

Mining in the Ecuadorian Amazon – Northern Sector

Figure 1. Mining to the southeast of Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP; MAATE; NCI, Planet.

In a previous report, MAAP #186 analyzed mining activity just outside Cofán Bermejo Ecological Reserve, located in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon, in the province of Sucumbíos. Here, we update and expand this analysis around the reserve.

This expanded analysis incorporates additional conservation areas, such as El Bermejo Protective Forest and the Cascales Municipal Conservation and Sustainable Use Area (see Figure 1), as well as Shuar and Kichwa Indigenous territories (Figure 2).

Due to the development of this mining activity in several different land designation areas, it is worth emphasizing that there are two major factors determining its legality or illegality in Ecuador:

1) Express prohibition provided for by the Constitution or law, as in the case of metal mining activities in protected areas (Article 407 of the Constitution) or the prohibition on the use of mercury in mining operations (Article 86.1 of the Mining Law).

2) Lack of authorization, such as conducting exploration and exploitation activities without the corresponding permits.

In terms of social impact, Mongabay Latam (2023) contextualizes this area (References 1-2): “Indigenous communities and social and environmental organizations that work in the territory cannot openly denounce what is happening in this border area with Colombia, due to the presence of armed groups and the serious security problems that exist there.”

Considering that the largest area of ​​gold mining deforestation is located in the Cascales Conservation and Sustainable Use Area (Figure 1), it is important to note that this type of designation (Conservation and Sustainable Use Areas) are zones created by decentralized autonomous local governments, communities, or private landowners to conserve biodiversity and develop sustainable activities that maintain ecosystem services beneficial to human life. Activities such as conservation, research, restoration, education, culture, recreation, and tourism, as well as sustainable subsistence production activities, can be carried out in these protected areas. The declaration of these protected areas does not modify mining concessions granted by the National Environmental Authority that remain in force and may be renewed, as long as they are compatible with sustainable use.

Regarding El Bermejo Protective Forest, this designation type (Protective Forest) is natural vegetation formations (trees, shrubs, or herbs) found in areas with rugged topography, headwaters of watersheds, or zones unsuitable for agriculture or livestock farming. Their primary function is to conserve water, soil, flora, and wildlife. Activities permitted in these forests, with authorization from the National Environmental Authority, include the promotion of wildlife, the execution of priority public works, sustainable forest management, and scientific, tourism, and recreational activities.

Indigenous Territories

Figure 2. Gold mining deforestation in Indigenous territories (Shuar & Kichwa). Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia; Planet

In addition to  the Cofán Bermejo Indigenous Territory, which shares boundaries with the Ecological Reserve of the same name, gold mining deforestation threatens six surrounding Shuar and Kichwa Indigenous territories (Figure 2).

Note that these territories overlap with the conservation areas noted above.

In total, 68% of the mining deforestation detected in the study area was identified as occurring within these Indigenous territories.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Increase in Gold Mining Deforestation 2020 – 2024

Using satellite imagery (Planet), we estimated the annual expansion of gold mining deforestation in this area between 2020 and 2024. The total forest area affected by mining by the end of 2024 is approximately 754 hectares, equivalent to 1,863 acres.

The vast majority of this mining occurred in the Cascales Conservation and Sustainable Use Area or Indigenous territories.

The analysis shows that the largest increase occurred in 2024, with an expansion of 189.62 hectares. Overall, we documented a trend of continual accumulated expansion of gold mining deforestation across the region (Graph 1).

Graph 1. Mining activity 2017-2024 outside the Ecological Reserve Cofanes – Bermejo. Data: ACA/MAAP; Fundación EcoCiencia.

Mining Concessions

Figure 3. Overlay of mining activities with the mining cadastre. Data: ACA/MAAP; EcoCiencia; ARCOM; Planet

By adding the mining land designations, we determined that 59% of the mining deforestation (444 hectares) occured outside legal mining areas (Figure 3).

The Ecuadorian government, through the Ministry of Energy and Mines, grants mining rights for the exploitation of mineral resources in each of its phases (mining activity is divided into an exploration and development phase).

The exploration phase is further divided into three periods: initial exploration, advanced exploration, and economic evaluation.

Carrying out development activities prior to the granting of the right is illegal and may incur administrative or criminal sanctions.

 

 

 

 

 

Case Studies

We selected three case studies within the monitoring area to illustrate the rapid expansion of mining activity (see Insets A-C in Figure 3). The comparative panels below demonstrate the expansion of mining activity between May 2024 (left panel) and December 2024 (right panel) in each case.

Zoom A.

Panel A shows mining deforestation taking place outside designated mining concession areas. Moreover, this activity is occurring within a Shuar Indigenous territory (Taruka Territory).

Panel Zoom A. Mining deforestation in Shuar Indigenous territory. Data: ARCOM (2025); Planet

Zoom B.

In Panel B, we identified 61.4 hectares of mining activity within the El Tuerto mining concession. However, this concession is currently in the initial exploration phase, meaning it has not yet been authorized for development.

Panel Zoom B. Data: ARCOM (2025); Planet

Zoom C.

In Panel C, we recorded 19.65 hectares of mining activity within the El Porvenir mining concession. It is also currently in the exploration phase, with no authorization for development. Furthermore, this activity takes place within the ancestral territory of the Puma Kucha Commune (Kichwa Indigenous territory).

Panel Zoom C. Data: ARCOM (2025); Planet

Policy Implications

The recent gold mining deforestation described above highlights several key policy needs:

  • Regulate public investment to ensure that the various conservation entities recognized by the national government have the necessary resources for oversight within their jurisdiction.
  • Strengthen investigation and oversight processes in institutions responsible for ensuring environmentally responsible mining activities.

Methodology

In addition to Amazon Mining Watch to create the Base Map, we used LandTrendR, a temporal segmentation algorithm that identifies changes in pixel values ​​over time, to detect forest loss at the edge of the Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve between August 2017 and December 2024 using the Google Earth Engine platform. Importantly, this method was originally designed for moderate-resolution (30-meter) Landsat imagery (Reference 3), but was adapted for higher spatial resolution (4.7-meter) NICFI-Planet monthly mosaics (Reference 4).

References

  1. Antonio José Paz Cardona. (2023, 7 junio). Ecuador: minería ilegal sigue avanzando hacia el interior de la Reserva Ecológica Cofán Bermejo. Noticias Ambientales. https://es.mongabay.com/2023/06/mineria-ilegal-reserva-ecologica-cofan-bermejo-ecuador/
  2. Amazon Watch report ‘Oro, bandas y gobernanza: La crisis que enfrentan las comunidades indígenas amazónicas de Ecuador’ 
  3. Kennedy, R.E., Yang, Z., Gorelick, N., Braaten, J., Cavalcante, L., Cohen, W.B., Healey, S. (2018). Implementation of the LandTrendr Algorithm on Google Earth Engine. Remote Sensing. 10, 691.
  4. Erik Lindquist, FAO, 2021

Acknowledgments

This report is part of a series focused on the Ecuadorian Amazon through a strategic collaboration between the EcoCiencia Foundation and Amazon Conservation, with support from the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.